Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Health And Social Care Essay

This instance survey is about an 80 old ages old male with symptomless abdominal aortal aneurism who presented to his GP with other symptoms unrelated to abdominal aortal aneurism. The writer will analyze the diagnosing of his aneurism, the mode used, the intervention and direction. Diagnosis and intervention tracts shall be followed ; analysis and comparing to other tracts shall be done to see which is the most effectual and accurate in the diagnosing and intervention of abdominal aortal aneurism. Patient confidential information shall be maintained throughout this essay, therefore in line with the codification of professional behavior, Nursing and Midwifery Council ( 2008 ) . Case study 80 old ages old, Mr X, of height 5 pess 8 tall who weighted 50 kilograms presented to his GP on the 6th of February 2010 with 6 yearss history of irregularity. During physical scrutiny a throbing mass was noted in his venters. The patient had no symptoms related to aneurysm, such us back or abdominal hurting. The GP discovered during conversation with Mr X that his brother died from rupture AAA a twelvemonth ago. Mr X smokes 3 battalions of coffin nails daily. His past medical records showed that, he had chronic clogging pneumonic disease, high blood pressure, ischemic bosom disease which he had a beltway surgery 15 old ages ago. He besides had an MI 2 old ages ago holding had transdermal conary intercession ( PCI ) to circumflex and right coronary arterias. The GP suspected that Mr X had an AAA and referred him for ultrasound scan to govern out the size of AAA. The ultrasound scan was conducted two hebdomads after seeing the GP. The scan revealed an aortal aneurism below the degree of the nephritic arterias mensurating 5.99 cm A-P diameter. Mr X was referred to a vascular sawbones who recommended a CT scan to look into the extent and anatomical construction of the aneurism to see Mr X ‘s suitableness for endovascular repai Computer Tomography Angiogram aorta was performed a hebdomad after the ultrasound scans. CT angiogram with contrast showed a big infra-renal abdominal aortic aneurism which measures maximally 6 centimeter in diameter. It besides demonstrated good infra-renal cervix. Ultrasound of the venters showing an infrarenal aortal aneurism steps 5.99 centimeter. ( Local NHS Trust 2010 ) Axial CTA with contrast of the venters demoing infrarenal aortal aneurism mensurating 6 centimeter ( pointers ) with partial calcified integral wall ( Local NHS Trust 2009 ) The sawbones so referred Mr X for an elected vascular surgery because his aneurism was big and carried a high hazard of rupture and decease. One hebdomad before his surgery, Mr X had a chest X ray, blood trial and EKG which were all normal. On the twenty-four hours of admittance, his pulsation was 68BP/min and regular with a blood force per unit area of 140/80 mmHg. The below tabular array shows pre-assessment blood probes done. Blood Test Mr X ‘s consequence Normal Laboratory Test Values Entire white blood cell count 6.56 M/mcL 3.8 M/mcL to 5.6 M/mcL hemoglobin 14 g/dL 11 g/dL to 18 g/dL Platelet count 160 150-400 Red blood cell count 5 M/mcL 3.8 M/mcL to 5.6 M/mcL Bureau of intelligence and research 1.1 0.9-1.2 Blood urea N 6.86 mg/dL 6 mg/dL to 23 mg/dL Creatinine 98 mg/dL 0.6 mg/dL to 15 ng/dL ( Tinkham 2009 ) Preoperative appraisal was done to give Mr X ‘s sawbones a image of his overall wellness position. A complete blood count was performed to look into for the presence of infection, ensured an equal ruddy blood cell volume and regulation out serious haematological abnormalcy. Electrocardiography ( ECG ) was performed to measure cardiac arrhythmias and diagnose cardiac upsets such as myocardial infarction. Chest X ray was done to measure the presence of infection, bosom failure, emphysema and other status that may act upon surgical result. Creatinine and urea were performed to place job with nephritic clearance preoperatively.INR trial was done to guarantee coagulating ability before surgery. The International Normalized Ratio ( INR ) was done to guarantee blood coagulating ability before surgery On the 30/ 4/2010, Mr X underwent an endovascular aortal fix and was transferred to intensive attention unit while proctor his status for 3 yearss. He was discharged and had a wholly recovery after a month. Mr X had a follow up postoperative ultrasound and field movie x beam of venters. X beam and ultrasound was conducted at 1and 6 months to look into the place of the stent transplant and endoleaks. However, the scan and ten beam showed no grounds of any complication. Plain skiagraphy of venters at 1 month the unity and migration of Zenith stent transplant Raad ( 2010 ) Discussion AAA is a comparatively common and potentially dangerous status associated with old age. The bulk of abdominal aortal aneurisms do non do any symptoms and hence diagnostic is frequently missed. In many instances, the exact cause of aneurism is still ill-defined. However, harmonizing to Baker ( 2009 ) , the primary cause of aortal aneurism is atherosclerosis and other factors for case, male over 65 old ages, smoke, a positive household history, COPD and high blood pressure contribute to the hazard. An probe of Mr X ‘s AAA was done during a physical scrutiny of the venters which was conducted for other grounds. Approximately 75 % of abdominal aortal aneurisms are symptomless and are found by the way during abdominal physical scrutiny or radiographic probes ordered for other conditions, ( Anderson et al 2001 ) . Aneurysm tactual exploration on physical scrutiny has merely been shown to be sensitive in thin patients and those with abdominal aortal aneurism & A ; gt ; 5 centimeter with an overall sensitiveness and specificity of 68 % and 75 % , severally for sensing of AAA, ( Fink et al 2000 ) . The primary mode used to corroborate Mr X ‘s aneurysm size was made by ultrasound. Ultrasound is a standard image mode for an probe of suspected symptomless and surveillance of abdominal aortal aneurism. Ultrasound is safe, non-invasive, comparatively cheap, widely available and does non expose patient to radiation. It is the best option for observing and mensurating the size of aneurism. However, harmonizing to Sparks et Al ( 2002 ) ultrasound can non accurately specify the extent of the aneurism as it can be altered by intestine gasses, and hence is unequal for preoperative planning of endovascular fix. Computerized Tomography Angiogram ( CTA ) of the venters was the 2nd mode to be used to look into the extent of Mr X ‘s abdominal aortal aneurism and the aneurysmal cervix for preoperative planning. CTA is going the diagnostic imagination mode of pick in the preoperative appraisal of patients with an abdominal aortal aneurism. However it has some disadvantages for case, it uses high doses of radiation, cost effectual and requires endovenous contrast but it is faster and extremely accurate in finding the size and extent of the aneurism, and its relation to the nephritic arterias. ( Hafez 2009 ) . The other mode that could hold been used for preoperative planning for Mr X ‘s abdominal aortal aneurism is magnetic resonance angiogram ( MRA ) . Harmonizing to Aburahma ( 2007 ) , MRA is merely used for surgical planning fix when CTA contradicts with patients with contrast allergic and nephritic failure. However, both computerized imaging and magnetic resonance imagination are effectual for preoperative planning fix. CTA and MRA imaging provide high-resolution imagination of the aorta and find proximal and distal boundaries of the aneurism, says ( Upchurch 2009 ) . MRI scan is comparatively clip devouring, really expensive and may be distorted by gesture artifact, extended calcified plaque and metallic surgical stents Upchurch ( 2009 ) . Hence, MRA is non used for preoperative appraisal of endovascular fix. Mr X ‘s preoperative mode was good as he did non hold any contraindication such as contrast allergic reaction or nephritic failure for him to undergo a magnetic resonance angiogram scan. With magnetic Resonance Angiogram, endovenous dye is non required and it does non expose the patient to radiation as compared to Computer Tomography Angiogram, ( Truijers 2009 ) The primary end of intervention depends on the size of the aneurism, the possibility of rupture and the patient ‘s status. The purpose of surgical intervention is to forestall aneurism from rupture for patients with symptoms such as back hurting, or symptomless aneurism greater than 5.5 centimeter in diameter, ( Hakaim 2006 ) . When sing intervention of abdominal aortal aneurism there are two types of fix ; unfastened fix and endovascular aneurism fix. Endovascular aortal fix ( EVAR ) was recommended as the most appropriate intervention for Mr X taking into history short and long term hazards and the benefits of both processs in relation to his age and co-morbidity every bit good as anatomical suitableness. This Endovascular aortal fix is a safe process and can be efficaciously performed in a patient with the suited anatomy for illustration, a individual with infrarenal aortal diameter no larger than 26 millimeters and aortal cervix length at least 15-20mm without inordinate angulations, ( Hallett 2009 ) . However, in such patients with a suited anatomy and surgical expertness, increasing the usage of endovascular aortal fix is likely justified based on its better preoperative result informations ( Hallett 2009 ) . EVAR relies to a great extent on nomadic C-arm image intensive. This enables the sawbones to utilize x-ray images to visualize the interpolation of stent transplant through the femoral arteria up to the site of the aneurism while being imaged. However, this it exposes patient to radiation during the process and in subsequent follow up EVAR is a less invasive process with a potentially reduced morbidity, mortality of 1.6 % , intensive attention, entire infirmary stay and a rapid recovery clip comparison to open fix with morality of 4.6 % , ( Tinkham 2009 ) . In the prospective randomized controlled tests, EVAR has been shown to hold a signifi ­cantly better preoperative result, ( Tinkham 2009 ) . In contrast to EVAR, unfastened fix requires a surgical exposure of the aorta clamping. Open fix was non recommended for Mr X because of hapless province of wellness due to his medical co-morbidities which limit his day-to-day activities. Harmonizing to Anderson ( 2009 ) , unfastened fix is non suited for patients with co-morbidity including terrible chronic clogging pneumonic disease or myocardial misdemeanor which places at high hazard. EVAR carries a higher hazard of complications which would necessitate farther surgery to rectify. This requires postoperative long-run follow-up imagination as the long term lastingness of the stent transplant remains unsure, ( Liaw et al 2009 ) . Mr X underwent a postoperative follow up obviously abdominal x beam and ultrasound at 1 month to look into the stent transplant unity and migration. Plain skiagraphy is easy to obtain and widely available. It still plays a utile function in measuring the metallic unity of the stent transplant but the truth of endoleaks is limited. However, the field movie can be used in concurrence with ultrasound as a method of follow up, ( Mattes et al 2011 ; Ginter et al 2009 ) . Duplex ultrasound imaging is non-invasive compared to CT. Studies show that duplex ultrasound had a sensitiveness of 90 % while CT had of 58 % in sensings of endoleaks, ( Badri et al 2010 ) Contrast-enhanced CT is another imaging mode that could hold been used for Mr X ‘s postoperative endovascular aortal fix. This image mode is expensive, less accurate in sensing of little endoleaks and it exposes patients to radiation and is. However, the major concern sing the frequent usage of contrast-enhance CT including additions cost and cumulative radiation doses which leads to lifetime malignant neoplastic disease hazard to patients have shift toward color semidetached house ultrasound, ( Mattes et al 2011 ) . MRA is alternate mode could hold been used for postoperative rating of Mr X ‘s stent transplant fix. Mr X can non undergo MRA as his aneurism was treated with Zenith stent transplant which may be distorted by gesture artifact in the magnetic field. Harmonizing to Liaw et Al ( 2009 ) , MRA is every bit accurate as CTA for sensing of endoleaks but is really expensive and can non be usage to image ferromagnetic stent transplants such as Zenith. Hence, MRA is non utile for postoperative rating of patients with stent transplants Decision I think the tract taken to name Mr X ‘s abdominal aortal aneurism was right and besides the most current pattern taken in many infirmaries. Endovascular aortal fix is a less invasive process with a potentially decreased morbidity and mortality. Endovascular aortal fix has been widely performed and it is an effectual option to open fix, peculiarly for patients with medical comorbidities. However, the mandatary follow up after is a disadvantage of this technique. Despite the disadvantages, CT remains the most widely used mode in preoperative planning for abdominal aortal aneurism and postoperative surveillance after endovascular aortal fix. In contrast to computing machine imaging, ultrasound is the simplest, cheapest, mode used for suspected and surveillance of AAA. It is a standard mode used in concurrence with field movie in some infirmaries for follow up after endovascular aortal fix. Overall, imaging provides an spread outing aggregation of tools, leting progressively accurate probe of AAAs and patient choice for endovascular aortal fix. Surgeons and radiotherapists in this field should be cognizant of the technological betterments in each imagination mode, to do the right picks before, during and after endovascular aortal fix

Great Expectation Coursework

The first visit Pip had to Miss Havisham's house frightens and intimidates him ‘the passage were all dark, and that she had left a candle burning.' Dickens uses dark imagery to show a bit of clue to the audience the kind of person Miss Havisham is and it emphasises the dark side of Miss Havisham. This makes Pip scared because this is because this is different to where he came from, the house was huge. This shows how different his life is compared to Miss Havisham and Estella and how mysterious the house seems to him and us. Dickens creates a frightening atmosphere by describing the house in a really sinister way, ‘grass was growing in every crevice.' Dickens has portrayed the house as being uncared for because it tells and shows us that Miss Havisham hasn't cared for herself so if she can't do that, she obviously won't care for her house. It shows how mysterious scary and Miss Havisham is. Dickens describes Pip as ‘half afraid' towards Miss Havisham and the house. This shows how the reader understands his trepidation. Pip's social background is much lower compared to Miss Havisham and Estella, his mum and dad are dead, and he lives with his sister and her husband Joe, who is a blacksmith. His sister is worried and afraid Pip will follow in the footstep of her husband and wants him to achieve ‘great expectations'. Pip comes from a poor and low status background, so seeing a house like Miss Havisham's has different feelings, he feels amazed but at the same time worried. ‘This was very uncomfortable, and I was half afraid.' Estella treats Pip in a very controlling and rude way. She makes him feel useless and shows him how lower class he is compared to her. She treats him like a dog, always controlling what he does and always saying stuff about how he looks. ‘He is a common labouring boy, and what coarse hand he has.' This makes Pip start to see who he really is and he begins to worry about how he looks, because before he didn't really consider himself inferior. Pip also tried to be nice to Estella but every time he tried she never seemed to care or notice. ‘After you miss' to this she returned ‘don't be ridiculous boy, I am not going in.' This is done by Dickens to tell the audience that throughout the novel Pip will go through some adventure and Estella treatment towards him was one of them. It was the beginning. The house would really intimidate Pip because the Satis House compared to his house is like a palace ‘the great front entrance had two chains across it outside.' Also all of the riches he sees ‘jewels sparkled on her neck.' This shows a different side of Pip because of his reaction and also to describe what exactly was inside the house and to describe the opposite of Pip's life. The entrance to the house was mysteriously dark. Pip has also never seen such wealth before, so his expectations changes after his first visit. He becomes ashamed of himself, his background and Joe. When Pip first sees Miss Havisham, his reactions are stunned and shocked. Dickens also writes that he feels Miss Havisham is ‘the strangest lady, he has or will ever see.' The impression given to the reader is that he is scared and full of anticipation. This shows how odd the house is and how Miss Havisham is a contrast to Pip's life. When Miss Havisham speaks to Pip, she asks him lots of strange questions which makes her seem impatient ‘call Estella, she repeated, flashing a look at me. You can do that, call Estella at the door.' She speaks to him like he is a servant, always giving him instructions like she owns him or has power over him. ‘Call Estella, you can do that.' She also moves her hand around a lot, which makes her appear really arrogant and bossy. ‘With an impatient movement of the fingers of her right hand.' Pip felt very nervous and anxious before he entered Miss Havisham's room. Dickens describes him as being ‘half afraid' and he is scared of the dark. Dickens also presents Pip as being very small and scared. This is to emphasise the strangeness of the house and how Pip is out of place. Dickens uses imagery to describe Miss Havisham as dying or dead, he also describes her as a skeleton, ‘had shrunk to skin and bone.' The symbolism used is of a dead person. ‘Skeleton seemed to have dark eyes that moved and looked at me.' Dickens has done this to make the reader shocked because he wants us to feel disgusted and disturbed, and also to infer that she is half dead because of her emotional state. The effect of Miss Havisham's treatment on Pip is that he starts to notice who he really is ‘I began to consider them a very different pair, her contempt for me was so strong, that it become infectious and I caught it.' He also begins to feel ashamed of his social life and he sees the differences between himself and Miss Havisham. Miss Havisham also becomes bossy towards Pip and starts to control him using imperatives ‘play, play, play!' This would make Pip feel useless, insulted and ashamed of his family and probably wished he had a higher status like Miss Havisham and Estella. Estella's treatment towards Pip would affect him by making him feel depressed and make him think that Estella has power over him. Pip feels very strange towards Estella. He is in love with her but she doesn't seem to care. She talks to him like a 5 year old boy. ‘Don't be ridiculous boy.' This will make Pip feel like he is the servant while Estella is the master. Estella tries really hard to put Pip down and it usually works. ‘Her contempt for me was so strong, that it became infectious and I caught it.' It was like Estella had a disease and that has been given to Pip. She also calls him names ‘a stupid, clumsy, labouring boy.' At this point of the story, I think Pip feels ashamed of his family especially Joe. To Pip, Estella was his angel of light, his star. ‘Her light came along the dark passage like a star.' So without Estella, Pip can't see, he's nothing. However, like a star, Estella is cold, hard and out of reach. In the story each of the characters are controlled by one and another. Miss Havisham controls Estella and Estella controls Pip. She wants to get revenge on a male because of what happened with her ex. So she's using Estella to get revenge ‘well? You can break his heart.' Estella is controlling Pip because of Miss Havisham also because she is ‘self – possessed' and too full of herself. Pip is a pawn in their little games. The immediate effects on Pip of his first visit are that he begins to see the differences between himself, Estella and Miss Havisham. ‘I took the opportunity of being alone in the court – yard to look at my coarse hands and my common boots.' He believes what he has been told by Estella and starts to call himself he exact words. He begins to believe he really is not worth it. This has a long term effects in the novel because he becomes a complete different character who looks down at other people, just like Estella and Miss Havisham. Dickens did this to tell the reader that money can change people's character and no matter how much you have there is still a place in your heart that remembers who you were before. The long term effect on Pip of his first visit, are that he starts to become ashamed of his family especially Joe. ‘I wished Joe had been rather more genteelly brought up, and then I should have been so too.' He also starts to hope that he doesn't end up as a blacksmith like Joe. As the time goes on he becomes a snob. Dickens is showing the negative effects of money/elevation in status. The Satis House is like the opposite of Pip's life. He lives in a small house and the Satis House is like a palace, compared to his. It can be seen as a symbol for changing Pip's personality, background and his heart. Also it changes his behaviour from being nice, to becoming a rude boy and full of himself, just like Estella. Pip's visit to the house, is very important because throughout is childhood he had never really had much fun and also his family hope that he can gain an higher status by going to the Satis House. But for his sister she's hoping by Pip going there he may become wealthy one day and they/she would have a better life. So everything Miss Havisham instructs him to do, he has to obey her ‘with the fear of my sister's working me before my eyes, I had a desperate idea of starting round the room in the assumed character of Mr Pumblechook's chaise – cart.' In the novel Dickens is trying to say that no matter how wealthy you are or how nice you are money can change people. He is trying to tell us that the low social class people (Pip's family) were provoked by the amount of wealth they saw, and that intimidated them to want to be rich and rise in status. The reader's opinion of the effect of Satis House on Pip's future, is that if he didn't go to the house, he would be a different character, a different person. So it's the sister's fault for most of the way Pip has changed, but also Miss Havisham and Estella's fault because if he didn't meet them, he wouldn't be rude or have knew about so much wealth. He would be happy the way he was. The whole of the novel hinges that Pip will obviously become a snob and that Pip and Estella might not really get together at first but anything could happen after that.

Art Essay

Art Essay Definition Art Essay Definition Art essay can turn into a real obstacle on the way to college or university academic success. Art essays are in most cases based on general topics, however, they can also focus on one of the following visual art themes: collage, architecture, design, graffiti, painting, photography, sculpture, typography, drawing, film, decorative art, photography, printmaking, and others. Another way to test students on their knowledge of class material and readings is to see if they are aware of general visual art concepts including collage, conceptual art, contemporary art, derivative work, portraiture, illustration, and graphic design. Needless to say that most of the college and university students do not have enough time to burn the midnight oil reading the necessary literature on painters, sculptors, painters, and designers. Such students require professional academic writing assistance from custom writing agencies, which acknowledge the importance of contemporary education.

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Using relevant examples discuss the issues relating to Climate Change Essay

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Phyiscal and chemical control of growth and viabilty - Essay Example Environmental requirements are particularly physical conditions that affect the amount and type of microbial growth. For example, activities of enzymes are dependent on environmental temperature. Microorganisms are also classified into groups based on their preferred environmental temperature. For example: thermophilic organisms, thermophiles prefer very high temperatures of above 400; mesophilic organisms, mesophiles grow well in temperatures of 200 to 400; while psychrophiles, psychrophilic organisms prefer relatively low temperatures. However, a range of maximum or minimum growth temperature exists for every individual species. The best growth occurs at optimum growth temperature (Singh, 2010). Another environmental requirement for microbial growth is the extent of alkalinity or acidity of the habitat, also referred to as a pH solution. Most of the microorganisms prefer an optimum pH of between 6.5 and 7.5. The tissues of the human body is between 7.0 and 7.2, therefore neutrophilic microorganisms often grow in the body very well. Other microorganisms such as those in yoghut and sauerkraut which are acidophilic grow well in acidic environment of below 6.0, for example yeast and molds. Microbial growth also does well where osmotic pressure is idyllic. In most cases, the concentration of salt in microbial cytoplasm is around one percent. Where there is one percent concentration of salt in the environment, the osmotic pressure is at optimum. In case the salt concentration rise in the external environment, water will definitely flow out of the cytoplasm through osmosis via cell membrane to the environment resulting into shrinking of the microorganism, and ultimately death. In contrary, where external water has minimal salt, water flows into the cytoplasm through the cell membrane resulting into cell swelling and ultimately burst. Conclusively, microorganisms living in

About Writing Informal Short Reports Essay Example for Free

About Writing Informal Short Reports Essay Short reports are usually informal reports. Generally, these reports serve current needs and tend to have a limited readership. They tend to be between one and five single-spaced pages (ten double-spaced). They also tend to express a first person point of view. They use a personal style — we and you and a familiar vocabulary that conveys informality. They are often formatted for internal and external use. Memo-Reports Most informal reports follow the memo or letter format and are referred to as memo-reports and letter-reports. Use the memo-report format when writing internal or external communications about routine operations and familiar subject matter. Use it to inform colleagues about recent experiences — field trips, meetings, and seminars, and to report on achievements. Write a memo-report when you want to file a record of a decision, a transaction, a meeting, or a proposal. Any subject that needs documentation can be developed as a memo-report: new procedures and policies, background information for sales staff, new marketing strategies, and so on. See more:  First Poem for You Essay Since the subject matter is either routine or familiar or your readers, the one-line reference in the memo heading serves as the introduction. Arrange points for impact The standard of the memo-report are shown below in a conventional arrangement. †¢ Memo heading: To, From, Date, Subject. †¢ Source of the assignment: identification of the department head or superior who suggested or authorized the report (normally the person to whom you address your memo-report). †¢ Statement of the problem: a discussion of the background or status of the subject, a summary of the consequences of not taking action, and a reference to the scope and purpose of the report. †¢ Main points: introduced by headings. †¢ Summary and conclusions. Letter-Reports Any informal report can be developed in the letter-report format: a report on estimates for repairs or services, proposals for supplying a service or product, and updates on achievements, and so on. Arrange points for impact The standard parts of letter-reports are shown below in a conventional arrangement. †¢ Inside address †¢ Salutation †¢ Source the assignment †¢ Statement of the problem †¢ Main points †¢ Recommendations †¢ Complimentary close

People are not free to make moral decisions Essay Example for Free

People are not free to make moral decisions Essay Is it right to say that our actions are determined, or are they free? Hard determinists argue that when we make a moral decision, we have no free will. This is significant because if we do not choose our actions we cannot be held morally responsible. Given our experience of decision making this determinist position is hard to accept and perhaps the compatabilist approach of soft determinism is more valid. Soft Determinists recognise that we can make a decision freely that is coerced but the choices in themselves may be determined themselves. This contrasts with libertarianism, which states that we freely choose our actions and rejects determinism. To fully examine whether we are in fact free or not to make moral decisions, we must first analyse what particular factors affect our decision making. When we debate over a decision we consider/ weigh up our options, we know that we have a choice and only we can make that choice, this is known as a libertarian view. Libertarians believe that we have full responsibility of our actions and nothing else affects our decision, however genes, environment, lifestyle and our upbringing affect or sometimes might determine our choices. Determinism objects libertarianism and believes that our choices are influenced by factors other than the will of the individual, events and actions are predetermined by other events therefore freedom of choice is an illusion. Free will is the term made up of ‘autos’ meaning self and ‘nomos’ meaning rule. Many philosophers such as Kant say that you can only be responsible for actions that you undertake of your own will, this is opposed to Determinism. Libertarianism is the belief that humans are free to make moral choices and therefore morally responsible. â€Å"By liberty we can only mean a power of acting of not acting according to the determinations of the will†. David Hume. In the definition of libertarianism a distinction between the persons character or personality and his/or her moral self. It is this moral self or will that is free. â€Å"Your destiny is allotted to you, but you shall choose it for yourselves†. Plato. There are many arguments that support libertarianism, the most predominant of these being the argument from experience, this states that we all experience making choices, such as the very fact that I am sat here writing this essay is the result of a choice, I did have another option so I could’ve chose otherwise. We are also aware of going through a decision making process, we can weigh up our options and act upon this. Libertarians also believe in the necessary cause stating that for Y to happen X must have caused it, without X Y will not happen. This is a determinist understanding, However Libertarians recognise that causes are contingent and not necessary, they may or may not cause Y, this is a libertarian view. However opposed to this Determinists would argue that if free will exists then what actually causes our actions, surely our actions are caused by something, for example what about our past experiences and emotions? Also a determinist would argue is it part of human nature to assume that we are free and what exactly is moral responsibility, and how is this separate from our personality. If it comes from the soul then what causes the soul. Hard determinism states that people do not have free will to act in moral situations. It also states that everything has a prior cause which precedes it; everything is a product of the cause which is unchangeable and fixed. Therefore we cannot be held morally responsible or blameworthy for their actions because their actions are determined. When we think that we are making a moral decision, hard determinists believe that this is an illusion that we are free but in fact we are not and the decision that we made was already determined. John Locke’s example of the man in the locked room shows that we believe that we are free but we are actually not. However libertarians would argue that we had the choice whether or not to go into the locked room. Psychological determinism is another form of Hard Determinism. This suggests that our characters are determined by our upbringing and experiences. There are many influencing factors on human behaviour such as hereditary, society, culture and environment. Freud taught that our early years have impact on our actions in the future, there is also much evidence to support this view such as Pavlov’s dogs which operant conditioning demonstrates that we can mould our behaviour through rewards and sanctions, it also demonstrates how our behaviour is determined. However a libertarian would argue that just because you can condition one element of decision making doesn’t mean that all behaviour is determined, we always have a choice. Theological determinism is also another form of hard determinism. This is the view that the causal chain can be traced back to an uncaused causer, as shown in Aquinas’ Cosmological argument, and this uncaused causer is God. If God is, as suggested by Calvin through his predestination view which suggests that God has already determined a plan for us so we are either damned (going to hell) or elect (going to heaven) , an omnipotent and omniscient God then we cannot have free will as our actions must be predetermined because of this. There are many criticisms for this view that Libertarians would address as it conflicts with biblical teachings as in Genesis it states that God gave us free will and also for theological determinism to be accepted, libertarians would also argue that there is no proof of this God, so in their view we still have a choice. A form of Hard Determinism that contrasts and argues this view is scientific determinism; this approach states that science tells us that for every physical event there is a physical cause. If we consider the mind to be material activity in the brain, so then our thoughts are also pre determined. Another form of hard determinism is Biological determinism which states that our characters are determined by our genes, this is partly true as genes do give us our characteristics such as what we look like, even our IQ, all this can determine our behaviour for example the violent gene as evidence can be traced back to the genome (e. g. a violent gene recognised by the Italian supreme court). However libertarians would argue that because there is only 0. 2% variation in our DNA, so this doesn’t seem efficient enough to explain all the variations in human behaviour, it’s not just our genetic makeup that influences our behaviour, and they would argue that we always have a choice. Soft determinism states that we are morally responsible for our actions; this approach allows libertarianism and hard determinism to be compatible. It states that as long as no one forces you to make a decision then you are free, this can be described as internal freedom. However soft determinists make a distinction between internal and external causes, these explain why freedom and Jeremy moral responsibility are not only compatible with determinism but actually require it. Soft Determinism, unlike hard determinism, allows for moral responsibility, for example if person A does not save a drowning child because person A cannot swim, he is not morally responsible. However, if he chooses not to because of his personality, a combination of his conditioning, an upbringing and so forth, then he is to be held responsible. Soft determinists believe that all human actions are caused and when we say that a person acted freely we are not saying that there was no cause but rather they were not forced to do it, here they act as free agents even though their actions are still caused. A main philosopher associated with soft determinism is Hume whom was a soft-determinist. He stated that all things are necessary and believed that some things are uncaused or happen as the result of chance. Hume also believed that we are free, he goes on to say that we dont blame people for things they do ignorantly, and blame them less for things that are not premeditated, and any sense of moral blame can only come if something we do is the result of our character. Hume believed that free will, and moral responsibility, require determinism. Soft determinists are criticised by hard determinists for failing to realise the extent to which human freedom is limited and also by libertarians for failing to recognise the true extent of freedom. Whilst Soft determinism offers a ‘middle ground’ between hard determinism and libertinism an agreeable account of moral freedom, a line still has to be drawn between that which is determined and that which is open to choice. The major fault with soft determinism is that they have to try and agree on what is a determining factor and what is not and the complexities of genetics, psychology makes such a line difficult for them to draw. So In conclusion, through the arguments expressed in this essay, I believe that perhaps a Soft Determinist approach is more susceptible towards moral decision making, as although it allows us to make our own decisions, they are to an extent determined due to numerous factors such as our upbringing, environment and culture, however it also allows us to accept responsibility for our actions whatever they may be.

Is It Possible to Control the Ebola Epidemic?

Is It Possible to Control the Ebola Epidemic? A terrible tragedy struck the western part of the African continent and our desire and believe is to put an end to this nightmare. Since the discovery of Ebolavirus in 1976 in Zaire, now DRC Democratic Republic of Congo, this virus is endemic in this country and has caused a trail of destruction. For years, it has afflicted our brothers mercilessly slaughtering entire families overnight, leaving a crowd of orphans along the way. Today West Africa, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Nigeria, also live an epidemic of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (EHF), the 7th in the history of the Democratic Republic of Congo, with the potential to spread to neighboring countries. WHO World Health Organization has worked with professionals from various countries to gather experiences in epidemics, concentrating efforts that can contribute in a practical way to control cases of Ebola, which are already more than 1.400 deaths this year so far, with mortality rates of 60-90%. Summary of the clinical picture of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (EHF): The EHF is an infectious disease caused by Ebola virus, an RNA và ­rus with filamentous appearance under electronic microscopy, diameter of 80nm, incubation period that various between 1-3 weeks. The initial symptoms are very similar to a simple flu, with asthenia, anorexia, headache and myalgia, insidiously progressing to vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding, dehydration, shock and death. The severity and duration of disease progression depends directly on viral load Ebolavirus, nutritional status and consequently, the immune status of each patient. In 50% of cases occur a maculopapular rash more pronounced on trunk and abdà ´men, and by the end of the 1st week blood dyscrasias symptoms are observed, such as nausea and uncontrollable vomiting, difficult to control epistaxis, hematemesis, melena, hemoptysis, bleeding conjunctival, skin, mucous membranes, gums, ulcerations of lips. From this point occur rapid progression to disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) with cardio-circulatory collapse, dysfunction and multiple organ failure and death occurs. There is no specific medication for treatment of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (EHF), only supportive measures to control hypovolemia, fluid and electrolyte replacement, blood, plasma or platelet concentrate transfusion, vasoactive drugs. The most frequent and common is the clinical and epidemiological diagnosis, The safest laboratory diagnosis is the identification of Ebolavirus by viral isolation in culture to identify the serotype, or by polymerase chain reaction with reverse transcription (RT-PCR) for sequencing of viral RNA. Contagion occurs primarily by direct contact with fluids, secretions of the patient as urine, blood, semen, sweat, saliva, or fomites and personal belongins contaminated with Ebolavirus. IS THERE A CORRELATION BETWEEN Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (EHF) and deaths from Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever? Undoubtedly, and we’ll explain some points needed to understand well this interrelationship. The work developed focusing on dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever and epidemics, was the theme in 2006, of masters thesis Homeopathy in Public Health: Contribution to the Study of Epidemics, in Post-graduation in Health Sciences of the Medical School of Sà £o Josà © do Rio Preto, Sà £o Paulo SP, Brazil. In 2002 the World Health Organization WHO launches the document Strategy of the WHO about Traditional Medicine, which in Brazil resulted in the administrative rule MS/GM No. 971 of June 3, 2006, known as NPICP National Policy on Integrative and Complementary Practices, which regulates prescription and use of homeopathy in epidemics. From the guidelines of the Ministry of Health, received by us as an incentive and authorization to follow through with these actions, we expanded the fieldwork, once it had been initiated in the city of Sà £o Josà © do Rio Preto, since 2001, a project to control dengue at the population level with homeopathic medicine1. Due to the excellent results obtained in February and March / 2007 in Sà £o Josà © do Rio Preto2, Sà £o Paulo and Macaà ©3, Rio de Janeiro, with the homeopathic medicine we extended the use to thousands of individuals in various cities in different states of Brazil, such as Sà £o Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Espà ­rito Santo and Goià ¡s, and in Cuba, in Ciego de Avila, Camaguey and Havana. The results of the clinical and epidemiological studies, were ratified by the medicines approval by ANVISA (the brazilian regulatory body of drugs administration) in December 2008, officially released in the category dengue treatment under the fancy name PRODEN, recorded by a national laboratory, and one of the five finalists of the 1st Sanofi-Aventis Prize, Medical Services Innovation New Directions in Public Health, in June 2009. For this to happen, the product has undergone rigorous testing in rats, rabbits and mice, in the Drug Research Laboratory of the Federal University of Amapà ¡, whose experiments have shown average increase of 200.000 platelets/ml to 600.000 platelets/ml in male rats4. The daily clinical practice has shown rapid improvement of the general condition of patients with dengue, confirmed by the prompt rise in platelet count. BUILDING A PROTOCOL FOR CONTROL OF THE EBOLA HEMORRHAGIC FEVER (EHF) The Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever has several points in common with the Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, as found in the 7th edition (2006) of Bogliolo’s5 text: in hemorrhagic fevers from Ebola and Marburg viruses, autopsy shows disseminated skin, mucosa and visceral bleeding, with extensive areas of renal and hepatic necrosis. Throughout the pathophysiology of both diseases, coagulation disorders have important, decisive for the rapid evolution to cardio-circulatory collapse, multiple organ failure, shock and death. Important to note that recent studies using electronic microscopy have shown that liver inflammation is the rule and not the exception, in cases of dengue, covering all four sorotypes6. THE FOUNDATIONS OF HOMEOPATHIC MEDICINE APPROVED  BY ANVISA FOR DENGUE’S TREATMENT The protocol and technical report of the Health Board of Sà £o Josà © do Rio Preto were implanted in all BHU (Basic Health Units) in the city in February 2007.2 Thousands of doses of the medicine were dispensed with great adherence of the population. In 20072, despite the magnitude of this epidemic, only one patient died, she was a health professional, due to suspected acetaminophen intoxication. The homeopathic complex is a combination of three homeopathic remedies, Phosphorus, Crotalus horridus and Eupatorium perfoliatum, these first two are because of the hemorrhagic events, the last one is limited to dengue itself, to constitute the epidemic genius peculiar to cases of classic dengue fever, without complications. The Eupatorium had its pathogenetic trials conducted in 1846 by the American Academy of Homeopathy, from a plant in the eastern United States of North America, which was used by native Indians to treat break-bone-fever . Hahnemann was the one to accomplish in 1823, the pathogenetic experimentation of Phosphorus, in Germany (Dresden and Leipzig). He is the prototype of the treatment of hepatitis, confirmed in studies with experimental animals subjected to poisoning by carbon tetrachloride in laboratà ³rio7. And finally Crotalus horridus, made from a north-american rattlesnake’s venom in 1837, made by Constantine Hering, is the primary reference and one of the most effective remedies for profuse, generalized and rapidly developed hemorrhages. FINALLY FINDING THE MEDICINE FOR THE CONTROL OF  THE EBOLA HEMORRHAGIC FEVER Given to the extensive knowledge already accumulated and analyzing the features found in the EHF epidemic, it is evident that these same remedies, Phosphorus and Crotalus horridus, already tested and used in cases of hepatic dysfunction and bleeding in dengue, should be added to the remedie that represents the epidemic genius of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (EHF), a brazilian plant named Ipecacuanha. Thus, the Anti-Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever Homeopathic Complex, is the result of the combination of three remedies: Phoshorus, Crotalus horridus and Ipecacuanha. The Ipecacuanha is in the 1st list of 24 polychrests remedies established by Hahnemann and part of the group of the 60 major remedies used in Homeopathy8. According to the Treaty of Homeopathic Materia Medica9, the remedie is of maximum indication for acute disorders with nausea, copious bleeding of bright red blood from any orifice of the body, tightness in chest, cold sweats, facial pallor and little tendency to clot the bleeding. Prof. Michel Guermonprez10 highlights the relationship of this plant’s alkaloids with reflex nausea and drooling that always accompanies its symptomatic procession, bloody diarrhea (intestinal bleeding), cough and bronchial hypersecretion with blood (hemoptysis), severe headache and rapid evolution to weakness, with marked and rapid loss of vital forces, dehydration and shock. In the secular homeopathy practice, we find the option of using remedies in combination, and to ensure its effectiveness, we must follow the classical criteria, respecting the agreement of the general condition of the pathophysiological actions triggered by the isolated remedies and verified in animal or human experiments, in order to prevent antagonism and neutralization of the active ingredients of these remedies together, and thus ensure that the potentiation of its effects appear, as understanding of renowned authors such as Licà ­nio Cardoso, Helena Minin and Anna Kossak-Romanach, among others11. The key to find the correct medicine is to get as close as possible to the simillimum of the epidemic, in other words, what is the closest to the profile or individuation of the symptom picture of the epidemic, in its most frequent form and repeated manifestation, present in the greatest number of sick people at that period of time. We call this coincidence Similarity or Similitude Law, and that is the backbone of Homeopathy. The choice of potency or dynamisation comes after the determination of the most suitable medicine to control the epidemic and in this specific case of the EHF by gravity, magnitude and severity of the symptoms, is to be used in 15DH, as employed in the experimental work with animals and approved by ANVISA as explained above. INDICATION AND DOSAGE OF ANTI-EHF HOMEOPATHIC COMPLEX It should be clear that homeopathy is a complementary medicine to all actions already developed and used drugs, including antibiotics for bacterial complications, to stabilize the clinical condition of patients victimized by Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (EHF). The indicated homeopathic remedies are prepared in combination, also known as Homeopathic Complex in a 30% alcohol solution, and 20ml bottles: PHOSPHORUS 15 DH + CROTALUS HORRIDUS 15 DH + IPECACUANHA 15 DH 1) doses for treatment of previously diagnosed and more severe cases: Administer 5 drops orally every 20 minutes until clinical stabilization of the patient, accompanying hemodynamic and laboratory parameters such as hematocrit, leukocytes and platelets, etc; 2) In the most stable cases: Keep 5 drops every 2 hours until clinical improvement, according to criteria such as general health, hydration, blood pressure, urinary flow, absence of bleeding and laboratory controls, such as leukocyte count and platelet count, hematocrit, etc; 3) Employment as a prophylactic: 5 drops administered orally twice daily (morning and evening), during the period of epidemic risk. Target audience: all susceptible population located in areas of occurrence of EHF. Renan Marino is Professor of FAMERP – Medicine School of Sà £o Josà © do Rio Preto, Master in Health Sciences and President of IHFL Homeopathic Institute Franà §ois Lamasson Ribeirà £o Preto, Sà £o Paulo, Brazil. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1) MARINO R, Jamal EM, Esteves Neto SH, Constantine A, Braguini VR. Emprego Profilà ¡tico da Homeopatia em uma Epidemia de Dengue. Pesquisa Homeopatica/ Homeopatia Esplorado 2003, 18 (2): 2-6. Work also presented at the 59  ° Panamerican Congress of Homeopathy Havana / Cuba, in 2003, from the experience at Cristo Rei neighborhood in Sà £o Josà © do Rio Preto; 2) MARINO R. Homeopathy and Health: The Case of Dengue Epidemics. Int J High Dilution Res [online]. 2008; 7 (25): 179-185. Available from: http://www.feg.unesp.br/~ojs/index.php/ijhdr/article/view/312/373; 3) NUNES LAS. Contribution of homeopathy to the control of an outbreak of dengue in Macaà ©, Rio de Janeiro. Int J High Dilution Res [online]. 2008; 7 (25): 186-192. Available from: http://www.feg.unesp.br/~ojs/index.php/ijhdr/article/view/315/374; 4) VIRIATO, E., OLIVEIRA, B., CARVALHO, J. C. Avaliaà §Ãƒ £o da toxicidade sub-crà ´nica do Medicamento Proden ®. Brazilian Homeopathic Journal v. 11, n. 1, p. 23 24, 2009; 5) BOGLIOLO, Luigi; BRASILEIRO FILHO, Geraldo. Patologia. 6 ed. Rio de Janeiro: Ed. Guanabara Koogan, 2000; 6) MIGOWSKI, E. Uso de Antità ©rmicos em Doenà §as Infecciosas Virais. Abbott booklet of Brazil, 2002; 7) Encyclopà ©die Mà ©dico-Chirurgicale: Vol II Homeopathie Ed Tecniques, Paris, 1960-1968,. 8) KOSSAK-ROMANACH, A. A Homeopatia em 1000 Conceitos. Sà £o Paulo. Ed. Elcid; 1984; 9) VIJINOVSKY, B. Tratado de Materia Medica Homeopatica, volum II, Buenos Aires.Ed. Albatros, 1981; 10) GUERMONPREZ, M. et al. Materia Medicale Homeopathique, 2nd ed, Doin Editeurs, 1985, France.; 11) POZETTI, G L. Complexos e Complexismos. Ribeirà £o Preto / SP: IHFL, 1993;

Dick Diver as Control Freak in Fitzgeralds Tender is the Night Essays :: Tender is the Night Essays

Dick Diver as Control Freak in Tender Is the Night       In Fitzgerald's Tender is the Night, Dick Diver is assigned the role of doctor, but he does not play this role convincingly. In modern technical terms, Diver is a control freak, more dysfunctional than his star patient and wife, Nicole Diver. As Diver loses control of more and more situations and begins to assume Nicole's instabilities, his integrity lessens -- he becomes more of a drunkard and less of a psychiatrist.    Diver's profession as a psychiatrist is the first signal Fitzgerald gives the reader that Diver's character thrives on understanding and conquering the human mind. Diver has only one plan: "To be a good psychologist -- maybe to be the greatest one that ever lived" (Fitzgerald, Tender, 132). This goal represents Diver's interest in overpowering others initially through medical practice and his understanding that he has the capacity to do so. Rooted in Diver's past, the desire to control portrays itself later in Diver's relationships and calculated behaviors.    Fitzgerald highlights Diver's incessant need to control people when describing the Divers' notorious parties. Diver wants "to give a really bad party ... a party where there's a brawl and seductions and people going about home with their feelings hurt and women passed out in the cabinet de toilette" (27). To achieve this goal, Diver has perfected the skill of manipulating his guests, so that "he won everyone quickly with an exquisite consideration and a politeness that moved so fast and intuitively that it could be examined only in its effect (27-28). Diver believes he has the power to dictate the behavior of his guests and the outcome of his parties. Playing with people has become a hobby of Diver's, as he must be in control of his guests and the evening at all times.    Diver's controlling nature presents itself not only at his parties, but also in his relations with Nicole Diver. While Diver does love his wife, he nonetheless "handles" her, always treating her like a patient over whom he has power. During their courtship, the letters Diver sends to Nicole Diver say mostly, "be a good girl and mind the doctors" (130). These were not traditional love letters, rather letters between an adoring patient and her doctor. Diver retained his superior status as doctor who had control over her while corresponding with her, as his letters contained commands for her behavior -- he knew she would follow his directions.

Creation’s Contest with Evolution Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Ed

Creation’s Contest with Evolution It began in Dayton, Tennessee-1925. A high school teacher by the name of John Scopes was charged with teaching evolution, which was illegal at the time in Tennessee. The court found Scopes guilty, and he was fined one hundred dollars. However, the Scopes trial immediately sparked one of the largest controversies in today's public school systems: should creationism still be taught in public schools? In the trial, Clarence Darrow argued that teaching creationism in public schools defies the separation of church and state (which is pulled from the first amendment). Darrow moved on to say that evolution does not disobey the first amendment. The trial denied all public schools the right to teach creationism-a belief that humans were created by a higher being-although evolution may be taught. However, Darrow's claim is being challenged. Many believe evolution disobeys the first amendment. Others believe that excluding creationism in classrooms shows an unfair bias and, therefore, gives the allusion that the evolutionary theory is a fact. This, once again, disobeys the first amendment (according to Darrow). If the only theory of origination taught in schools is evolution an unfair bias and anti-God philosophy is instilled in the students. For these reasons, both evolution and creation should be taught in public schools. Prior to the year 1925, all public schools in the United States taught creationism (Evolution Conspiracy). This widely accepted notion of God creating man was challenged by a British naturalist by the name of Charles Darwin in 1859 with the publication of On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection. In the book, Darwin proposes that, ... ...s say is legitimate. That kind of censorship and unprecedented bias has the potential to force students to believe in evolution for the sheer reason that they are not exposed to the opposing view. This in itself directly conflicts with Clarence Darrows' argument. If creationism disagrees with the first amendment, as Darrow explained, then it would only make sense that humanism disagrees with the first amendment as well. It is unfair for the students not to learn both theories of origin so Darrows' argument is proven illegitimate. The only fair way to teach the theory of origin is to explain both. Doing this will not instill Christian beliefs in the students, but rather keep the students' minds open to both sides of the two contradicting theories. As a result, students can come to their own conclusion and that is the true definition of science.

The Impact Technology Has on Education Essay -- Computers Networking E

The Impact Technology Has on Education missing works cited Technology is not a new concept. Humans are constantly inventing new items that will make their lives easier and more enjoyable. In the early 1800s, a technological invention was introduced into classrooms that would prove to "have a profound impact on teaching." Advocates felt that the invention would prove to be invaluable and it was placed in classrooms around the country. In the beginning, teachers needed to be encouraged to use this new technology. They were given step-by-step instructions on how to integrate its use into their lessons. Today it is hard to imagine a classroom that doesn’t have this technology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.the chalkboard! In the twentieth century, a variety of new devices were invented that provided new ways for teachers to present their lessons. When motion pictures entered the classrooms, people thought that books would become obsolete. Some people thought that it would be possible to teach every branch of human knowledge with the motion picture and it would soon replace the teacher. These inventions, which are only two of hundreds, have not made the teacher’s role obsolete. They have simply provided tools to make teaching and the learning experience more effective and enjoyable. Some people believe that by introducing computers into classrooms, society is beginning to replace the role of teachers with today’s technology. This is untrue. Although it will, and it has, changed the role of the teacher, as well as the role of the student, the computer, just as the motion picture and the chalkboard will enhance the classroom. It will bring about new techniques of teaching and learning. Computers and networking are an important part of today’s society. ... ...ciates, Inc http://www.classroomgoodies.com/ †¢ More on Distance Education: TEAMS Distance Learning http://www.teams.lacoe.edu/ Satellite Educational Resources http://www.serc.org/ Cyberschool http://www.cyberschool.k12.or.us/ Aphelion http://www.charismagics.com/amphelion/ Access2Education http://www.access2education.com/ †¢ Links to Teacher and Student Resources Education world http://www.education-world.com/ Federal Resources ed. Excellence http://www.ed.gov/free/ Education Planet http://www.educationplanet.com/ Worldwide Classroom http://www.worldwide.edu/ †¢ Links to Disability sites American Asso. Of University Affiliated Programs http://www.aauap.org/ Equal Access to Software Information http://www.isc.rit.edu/~easi/ Education Emancipation Disabled Manpower http://www.eega.nl/ Deaf Education Option Web http://www2.pair.com/options

Social Control Theory vs. Conflict Theory

The Social Bond theory was written and proposed by Travis Hirschi in 1969. Social Bond theory, that later developed into Social Control Theory, has historically been an interesting way of approaching social problems and how we in turn explain them. Before one can apply the Social Bond theory, they must first have a firm understanding of its definition, which can be accurately described by Hirschi (1969) as, â€Å"Elements of social bonding include attachment to families, commitment to social norms and institutions (school, employment), involvement in activities, and the belief that these things are important† (p. 6). This theory is rooted and derived from the General Theory of Crime. Hirschi’s (1969) social bond theory emphasizes the fact that there is an absence of social attachments among juvenile delinquents. Since family, friends, and other members of our social networks affect our lives in many ways, we in turn are direct descendents of their actions. One of the most critical times in our lives is our adolescence. During this critical time we need strong positive social ties to represent society in the best way possible. On the other hand, if the ties we share in our lives are negative and criminal-like habits, it most likely that negative results will occur. The basic difference between the General Theory of Crime and Hirschi’s (1969) Social Bond Theory is the focus on peers and peer groups of individuals. The four basic elements of social bond theory are attachment, commitment, involvement in conventional versus deviant or criminal activities, and lastly the common value system within an individual’s society or subgroup. Attachment is described as the level of values and or norms that an individual holds in society. Attachment is especially important when it come to the person’s parental figures. This theory suggests that conventional figures, such as parents, when bonded make a huge impact in the deterrent of criminal acts. Attachment to other peers tend to be just as supportive as parental ties, just as long as these ties are positive and do not deviate from the social norms of society. References The Huffington Post (2011) NASDAQ Hackers reportly penetrate computer network multiple times Retrieved on February 4, 2011 at http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/05/nasdaq-hackers-reportedly_n_819068.html Wall Street Journal (2011) Hackers penetrate NASDAQ Computer Retrieved on February 5, 2011 at http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704709304576124502351634690.html http://criminology.wikia.com/wiki/Social_Bond_Theory

The Effects of Missing Letters to the Reading Comprehension

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY (CvSU) DON SEVERINO DE LAS ALAS CAMPUS Indang, Cavite ( (046) 415-0021 ( (046) 415-0012 E-mail: [email  protected] com â€Å"The Effects of Missing Letters to the Reading Comprehension of 2nd year IT Students of Cavite State University† In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Subject Experimental Psychology Prepared By: Ersando, Shalom G. Suansing, Glenda Mae E. March 2012 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA Shalom G. Ersando was born in J. P Rizal Memorial Hospital Dasmarinas Cavite on January 15, 1994. She is now residing at Brgy. Cabezas, Trece Martires City,Cavite.She is the eldest among the two siblings of late Mr. Carlito B. Ersando and Mrs. Victoria G. Ersando. She finished her elementary at Palawit Elementary School at Brgy. Cabezas Trece Martires City,Cavite in 2006. She completed her secondary at Tanza National Trade School at Paradahan I Tanza Cavite. At Present she is now taking up Bachelor of Science in Psychology at Cavite State University Inda ng Cavite. BIOGRAPHICAL DATA Glenda Mae Suansing was born on August 23, 1994. She is the second child of Nerissa and Alexander Suansing. She is currently residing at St. Michael Village, Sungay East, Tagaytay City.She has two siblings, Glen Mark and Gladys Suansing. She graduated her elementary at Tagaytay Elementary School. She was a consistent character awardee. She finished her secondary education at Tagaytay City Science National High School. She is currently studying at Cavite State University taking up Bachelor of Science in Psychology. After graduating college she is planning to pursue Industrial Pschology. She wants to become a Human Resource Practitioner. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This experimental research will not be complete without encouragement,assistance,support and inspiration proved by several people.The authors wish to express their sincerest appreciation and gratitude to the following persons who helped in the realization of this piece of work; To Ms. Alodia Mercado, our adv iser for her sound academic guidance and moral support which enabled her to pursue this study; To Ms. Alma Fatima Reyes, for her useful comments and suggestions that improved the study; To Ms. Ivy Valerie Garcia for letting the researchers use her laptop; To To the family of the researchers,for their love and support they gave me throughout the study; My greatest praise and honor to our Lord Almighty who guided me through my most difficult moments and problems.ABSTRACT SUANSING GLENDA MAE, ERSANDO SHALOM â€Å"The Effects of Missing Letter to the Reading Comprehension of 2nd year IT Students of Cavite State University. † Experimental Research. Bachelor of Science in Psychology. Cavite State University. March 2012, under the supervision of Ms. Alma Fatima Reyes. As reading plays an important role in our lives, reading comprehension is important for human progress. This experimental research proposes to investigate the effects of missing letters to the reading comprehension of students. The research is conducted at Cavite State University, Indang, Cavite.Fifteen respondents were needed for the Pre-test and the Post-test. Same person will be taking the Pre-test and Post-test. All fifteen respondents are 2nd year BS IT students of Cavite State University. The general objective of the study was to determine the Reading Comprehension of Students with missing letters. Specifically, the study aimed to determine if there was a difference between the scores obtained in the Pre-test and the scores obtained in the Post- Test. Data and information were gathered through the help of the respondents by answering the questionnaires regarding to their Reading Comprehension Skills provided by the researchers.TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL SHEET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIOGRAPHICAL DATA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACKNOWLEDGM ENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Significance of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scope and Limitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theoretical Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conceptual Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . METHODOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design Notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sampling Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Respondents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Instrument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Gathering Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .LIST OF TABLES †¢ Table 1. A Distribution Table of the Pre-test Scores †¢ Table 2. A Distribution Table of the Post-test Scores †¢ Table 3. Difference of Pre-test and Post-test Scores LIST OF FIGURES †¢ Figure 1. Parallel Letter Recognition †¢ Figure 2. Research Paradigm †¢ Figure 3. Graphic Representation of Pre-test Scores †¢ Figure 4. Graphic Representation of Post-test Scores LIST OF APPENDICES †¢ Budgetary Estimates (Appendix A) †¢ Calendar of Activities (Appendix B) †¢ Instrument (Appendix C) †¢ Statistical Analysis of Data (Appendix D) †¢ Curriculum Vitae (Appendix E) THE EFFECTS OF MISSING LETTERS TO THE READING COMPREHENSION OF 2nd YEAR IT STUDENTS OF CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY† Glenda Mae Suansing Shalom Ersando | An experimental research prepared to the faculty of the Department of Social Sciences and Humanities, College of | |Arts and Sciences, Cavite State University, Indang Cavite in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Experimental Psychology| |with Contribution No. ER1. Prepared under the supervision of Ms. Alma Fatima Reyes. | INTRODUCTION Reading is a cognitive process of decoding characters or symbols in order to create a meaning.It is a means of communicating and sharing of information. We do it automatically. It requires development, practice and understanding. When we read, we use our eyes to receive written symbols such as letters and we use our brain to convert them into words, sentences and paragraphs that communicate something to us. Many people read books, newspapers, magazines, comic books, etc. It is considered as a daily routine of other people who loved to read. Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema.Reading helps a lot in our vocabulary. It wi dens our knowledge about words. Sometimes when we encountered unfamiliar words we can’t understand it, but when we encountered the same word we already knew what its meaning because we’ve read it already read it in the past. Reading also helps us in communicating in many way for example say, your job or any job for that matter, and you need to read a contract for business purposes or even if you work at a supermarket, don’t you need to know how to read in order to send the food that a person get to the right address.So as you see reading is just an element we need for day to day life. Statement of the Problem The study aimed to determine the reading comprehension of students with missing letters. 1. What is the highest rating of the scores obtained in the Pre-test by the 2nd year BS IT students of Cavite State University? 2. What is the highest rating of the scores obtained in the Post-test by the 2nd year BS IT students of Cavite State University? 3. Is there a significant difference between the scores obtained in the Pre-test and the scores obtained in the Post-test? . Do the missing letters affect the reading comprehension of students? Objectives Generally, the study aimed to determine if there is a significant difference between reading with missing letters and reading with complete letters. Specifically, the study aimed to: 1. to determine the highest rating of the scores obtained in the Pre-test by the 2nd year BS IT students of Cavite State University. 2. to determine the highest rating of the scores obtained in the Post-test by the 2nd year BS IT students of Cavite State University. 3. o determine if there is a significant difference between the scores obtained in the Pre-test and the scores obtained in the Post-test. 4. to determine the effects of missing letters to the reading comprehension of students. Hypotheses Ha: There is a significant difference between reading the words with missing letters and reading with complete letter s in the comprehension of the students. Ho: There is no significant difference between reading the words with missing letters and reading with complete letters in the comprehension of the students. Significance of the StudyThis study will benefit the following beneficiaries: Respondents This study will help the respondents to be familiarized in this type of reading. The respondents will also enhance their vocabulary. Community This study will be a great help for the community in order for the people to be aware in this style of reading. School This study will benefit the school by teaching this style of reading not only for students but also for the teachers. Future Researchers This study will be a guide for the future researchers in order for them to have a background regarding to this study.This will also serve as their related literature. Scope and Limitation This study is about on how the students read and understand the meaning of a word if there is a missing letter on the word . This study will also test the vocabulary of the students. This study only involves 2nd year IT students of Cavite State University. It is composed of 15 respondents from IT students. The study also limits the short period time given to conduct this research. Definition of Terms These are some terms used in the study: Cognitive Psychology – it is the study of internal and external processes of the brainWord Superiority Effect – refers to the increase in efficiency of letter identification within words Reading Comprehension – level of understanding when reading Pattern Recognition – organization of stimuli Pre-Test – test given before the Post-test Post-Test – test given after the Pre- test Schema – past experiences Treatment – levels of the independent variable Theoretical Framework This study justified the Parallel Letter Recognition. It is the model that most psychologists currently accept as most accurate is the parallel le tter recognition model.This model says that the letters within a word are recognized simultaneously, and the letter information is used to recognize the words. This is a very active area of research and there are many specific models that fit into this general category. The figure below is one popular formulation of this model. [pic] Figure 1: Parallel Letter Recognition Figure 1 shows a generic activation based parallel letter recognition model. In this example, the reader is seeing the word  work. Each of the stimulus letters are processed simultaneously.The first step of processing is recognizing the features of the individual letters, such as horizontal lines, diagonal lines, and curves. The details of this level are not critical for our purposes. These features are then sent to the letter detector level, where each of the letters in the stimulus word are recognized simultaneously. The letter level then sends activation to the word detector level. The  W  in the first lett er detector position sends activation to all the words that have a  W  in the first position (WORD  and  WORK).The  O  in the second letter detector position sends activation to all the words that have an  O  in the second position (FORK,  WORD, and  WORK). While  FORK  and  WORD  have activation from three of the four letters,  WORK  has the most activation because it has all four letters activated, and is thus the recognized word. Conceptual Framework Fig. 2 This study aimed to know the difference between the Pre-test and Post-test scores of the students in their reading comprehension. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter presents the related topics and studies regarding this study. It also presents the synthesis of all the topics.Pattern Recognition Our ability to recognize familiar types of things is a spectacular human characteristic. This attribute allows us to recognize an old friend in a sea of faces, to identify an entire musical theme f rom a few notes, to read words, to enjoy the taste of a vintage wine, or to appreciate the smell of a rose. It is a cognitive endowment that we mostly perform seamlessly, rapidly, and without much effort. In our everyday life, we use pattern recognition all the time, yet the cognitive structures which support pattern recognition are only recently understood. Cognitive Psychology, 6th edition, Robert Solso, p. 109) Researchers have discovered that top-down processing can influence our ability to recognize a variety of objects. It also influences our ability to recognize letters during reading. Most of the research on this topic examines how context helps us recognize letters of the alphabet. Psychologists who study reading have realized for decades that a theory of recognition would be inadequate if it were based only as the information in the stimulus. (Cognition, 5th edition, Margaret Mathin, p. 42) Immediacy of InterpretationOne of the important principles to emerge in studied of language processing is called the principle of immediacy of interpretation. Basically this principle says that people try to extract as much meaning out of each word as it arrives, and they do not wait until the end of sentences or even the ends of phrases to decide or how to interpret a word. For instance, Just and Carpenter (1980) studied the eye movements of subjects as they read a sentence. While reading a sentence, subjects will typically fixate or almost every word. Just and Carpenter find that the time subjects spend fixating or word is basically proportional to the amount of information provided by a word. Thus, if a sentence contain or relatively unfamiliar or a surprising word, they pause in that word. (Cognitive Psychology & Its Interpretation,John R. Anderson) Reading Comprehension Reading comprehension is a complex undertaking that involves many levels of processing. One of the most fundamental aspects of comprehension is the ability to deal with unfamiliar words encoun tered in text. Readers who struggle with word-level tasks use up valuable cognitive space that could be allotted to deeper levels of text analysis.It is not enough to rely on context cues to predict the meaning of new words, since this strategy often results in erroneous or superficial understandings of key terms, especially in content-area reading (Paynter, Bodrova, & Doty, 2005). Mature readers need to possess a basic knowledge of â€Å"how words work† and a set of strategies for approaching new words encountered throughout the day. (http://www. edu. gov. on. ca/eng/research/mcquirter. pdf) How word knowledge affects reading comprehension Vocabulary knowledge is one of the best predictors of reading achievement (Richek, 2005).Bromley (2004), in a comprehensive review of research on vocabulary development, concludes that vocabulary knowledge promotes reading fluency, boosts reading comprehension, improves academic achievement, and enhances thinking and communication. Spellin g is also an important consideration in reading comprehension. The concepts about sound patterns that children learn in the early years through invented spelling and direct spelling instruction help them to decode new words in their reading. As they mature and begin to spell longer and more complex words, children apply the concepts of base words, prefixes, and suffixes to their spelling.This knowledge of morphology, in turn, helps them to deconstruct longer words encountered in their reading. Templeton (2004) argues that spelling knowledge provides the basis for explicit awareness and understanding of morphology, which, in turn, may guide the systematic growth of vocabulary knowledge. Considering the strength of vocabulary knowledge in predicting reading achievement, the complex interrelationships among these areas are significant. (http://www. edu. gov. on. ca/eng/research/mcquirter. pdf) Missing letter effectIn cognitive psychology, the missing letter effect refers to the finding that, when people are asked to consciously detect target letters while reading text, they miss more letters in frequent, function words (e. g. the letter â€Å"t† in â€Å"the†) than in less frequent, content words. The missing letter effect has also been referred to as the reverse word superiority effect, since it describes a phenomenon where letters in more frequent words fail to be identified, instead of letter identification benefitting from increased word frequency.The effect is usually measured using a paper-and-pencil procedure, where readers are asked to circle a target letter every time they come across it while reading a short passage. The missing letter effect is more likely to appear when reading words that are part of a normal sequence, than when words are embedded in a mixed-up sequence (e. g. readers asked to read backwards). The missing-letter effect for common function words It has been proposed that function words such as for and on conceal their let ters because their higher familiarity allows fast access to their unitized representations.However, this study shows that letter detection in function words varies with their linguistic role in text. When such words were embedded in a phrase where they were forced into a content role by the surrounding context (e. g. , for or against or on switch ), letter detection improved markedly and did not differ from that of matched content words. The result was replicated when the context preceding the function word and the overall sentential meaning were equated for both function and content usages.The results support a late-stage structural account of the function-disadvantage effect, where the syntactic units that support the structural frame of a sentence are lost in the transition from structure to meaning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) Word superiority effect In cognitive psychology, the word superiority effect (WSE) refers to the phenomenon that people a re more accurate in recognizing a letter in the context of a word than they are when a letter is presented in isolation, or when a letter is presented within a nonword (e. g. â€Å"WXRG†).Studies have also found a WSE when letter identification within words is compared to letter identification within pseudowords. (e. g. â€Å"WOSK†) and (e. g. â€Å"WERK†). The effect was first described by Cattell (1886), and important contributions came from Reicher (1969) and Wheeler (1970) . The WSE has since been exhaustively studied in the context of cognitive processes involved during reading. Large amounts of research have also been done to try to model the effect using connectionist networks. (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Word_superiority_effect) Several studies have shown a correlation between working memory and reading comprehension.Daneman and Carpenter (1980) used a dine-task procedure in which both tasks (reading and remembering) use a single verbal memory state. A compromise position suggests that the phonological component of working memory acts as a sort of back-up memory. When sentences are short or easily comprehended it is not needed with syntactically more complex or lengthy sentences processing may lay behind the input and so the representation in the phonological store needs to be consulted. (McCarthy and Worrington, 1990) Transfer to Long Term MemoryVerbal rehearsals may be necessary in acquiring some kinds of knowledge such as learning new vocabulary words. New words need to be first remembered by sound like a representation cannot be retrieved to long term memory. Ebbinghaus discovered another unique findings the serial position effect. It can be found in memory for lists even when serial anticipation is not required. Working Memory Working memory  has been defined as the system which actively holds information in the mind to do verbal and nonverbal tasks such as reasoning and comprehension, and to make it available for furthe r information processing.Working memory tasks are those that require the goal-oriented active monitoring or manipulation of information or behaviors in the face of interfering processes and distractions. The cognitive processes involved include the  executive  and  attention  control of  short-term memory  which provide for the interim integration, processing, disposal, and retrieval of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central both to  cognitive psychology  and  neuroscience. Synthesis We use pattern recognition in our daily lives, most likely in reading in how we recognize letters.It is an ability where only humans can do. One of the most widely demonstrated phenomena in the research on recognition is the Word Superiority Effect. According to the word superiority effect, we can identify a single letter more accurately and more rapidly when it appears in a word that it appears alone by itself or in a string or same letter. As we are reading a bo ok or any reading material, our brain process the meaning of a word. It is naturally done by our brain. By the help of our schema or past experiences, when we encountered a familiar word, we can easily recognize it.But it's quite difficult for us to understand the meaning of a word if we never encountered it in our past. METHODOLOGY In this chapter, the researchers will describe the research design, sampling technique, respondents, research instrument, data gathering procedure and the statistical analysis that they used. Research Design The research design that the researchers used was the Within Subject Design. A within-subjects design is a type of experimental design in which all participants are exposed to every treatment or condition. For the Pre-test, the respondents we’ll be not exposed to treatment.For the Post-test, the students will be now exposed to the treatment which is the missing letters in the passage. Psychologists often use them to test the relative effective ness of a new treatment, often a difficult proposition. One of the greatest advantages of a within-subjects design is that it does not require a large pool of participants. Generally, a similar experiment in a between-subjects design would require twice as many participants as a within-subjects design. A within-subjects design can also help reduce errors associated with individual differences.In a between-subjects design where individuals are randomly assigned to a treatment condition, there is still a possibility that there may be fundamental differences between the groups that might impact the results. In a within-subjects design, individuals are exposed to all levels of a condition, so the results will not be distorted by individual differences. Each participant serves as his or her own baseline. Design Notation O1XO2 O1 = Pre-test O2 = Post-test X = Treatment (Missing Letters) Sampling Technique Random sampling method was used.The researchers used the table of random sampling fo r choosing the respondents. The respondents were 2nd year IT students of Cavite State University. In random sample, each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected. If more than one individual is to be selected for the sample, there must be constant probability for each and every selection. Respondents The researchers need 15 students for pre-test and post-test. Same person were taking the pre-test and post-test. Research Instrument The instrument that the researchers used was a test questionnaire. The est questionnaire is composed of a short passage or story and then it is followed by a 10 item question. Treatment For the first passage in the pre-test, a normal passage with complete letters is given. For the post-test, the passage contains words with missing letters. This treatment will be given to 15 respondents. This will tests if it is good or effective to use. Data Gathering Procedure The researchers need to provide questionnaires for the respondents reg arding to their Reading Comprehension skills. The researchers need to provide questionnaires until they meet the minimum ( 15) respondents.After that Pre-test will be given in the respondents. And the post-test will be given to know if missing letters will affect the Reading Comprehension of the respondents. Statistical Analysis The researchers used the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test is a non-parametric statistical test for testing hypothesis on median. It is used when we wish to compare two sets of scores that come from the same participants. This can occur when we wish to investigate any change in scores from one time point to another or individuals are subjected to more than one condition.As the Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test does not assume normality in the data it can be used when this assumption has been violated and the use of the  dependent t-test  is inappropriate. The advantage with Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test is that it neither depends on the form of the parent distribution nor on its parameters. It does not require any assumptions about the shape of the distribution. For computing the mean, the researchers used the formula below. The researchers summed up all the scores and divided the total by the number of scores. [pic] Where: [pic] is the symbol for the mean [pic] is the symbol for summationX is the symbol for the scores N is the symbol for the number of scores For computing the standard deviation, the researchers used the formula: [pic] Where: S is the symbol for standard deviation [pic] is the value of the mean [pic] is the symbol for summation Xi represents each data value from i=1 to i=N.. N is the sample size RESULTS and DISCUSSION This chapter contains the analysis and interpretation of the results that we have gathered. The results gathered were organized, tabularized, discussed and analyzed in this section. The table contains the scores obtained by the students in the Pre-test and Post-Test.Table 1. A Distribution table of the Pre-test scores |Rating |Frequency(f) |Percentage(%) | |Excellent |0 |0 | |Very Good |4 |26. 7 | |Good |8 |46. 7 | |Poor 3 |26. 7 | |Total |15 |100 | |Mean |2. 0 | | |Standard Deviation |0. 75593 | | |Verbal Interpretation |Poor | | Legend: Poor 0-3; Good 4-5; Very Good 6-7; Excellent 8-10. Table one shows the pre-test scores by 2nd year IT students of Cavite State University. Out of fifteen students, 3 or 26. 7% of the students got Poor rating; 8 or 46. 7% of the students got Good rating; 4 or 26. 7% of the students got Very Good rating; and no one got Excellent rating. According to Anderson and Freebody (1981), it is well established that good comprehenders tend to have good vocabularies. This correlation, however, does not mean that teaching vocabulary will increase readers’ comprehension, for that is a causal conclusion.As it turns out, however, when reading educators conducted experiments in which vocabulary was either taught to students or not, compre hension improved as a function of vocabulary instruction. In the pre-test, the researchers included some difficult or unfamiliar words that the researchers think the students didn’t encounter before. As shown in the pre-test scores, the respondents tend to have poor reading comprehension and vocabulary. The low scores they got was a proof that if a word is unfamiliar and unrecognizable you can’t easily understand it. Table 2. A Distribution table of Post-Test Scores Rating |Frequency(f) |Percentage(%) | |Excellent |4 |26. 7 | |Very Good |3 |20 | |Good |4 |26. 7 | |Poor |4 |26. | |Total |15 |100 | |Mean |2. 5 | | |Standard Deviation |1. 18723 | | |Verbal Interpretation |Poor | | Legend: Poor 0-3; Good 4-5; Very Good 6-7; Excellent 8-10. Table 2 shows the post-test scores from the same students who took the pre-test. Out of fifteen students, 4 or 26. 7% of the students got Poor rating; 4 or 26. 7% of the students got Good rating; 3 or 20% of the students got Very Goo d rating; and 4 or 26. 7% of the students got Excellent rating. According to a research study, there are much more effective ways to teach comprehension. Much work has been done in the area of teaching novice readers a bank of â€Å"reading strategies,† or tools to interpret and analyze text.There is not a definitive set of strategies, but common ones include summarizing what you have read, monitoring your reading to make sure it is still making sense, and analyzing the structure of the text. Some texts, like in philosophy, literature or scientific research, may appear more difficult to read because of the prior knowledge they assume. Because the texts were unfamiliar, readers don’t understand it. Analysis of research findings reveal that if a reader is to become very good at comprehending what he reads he must meet two principal learning requirements. They must: (1. know words; and (2. ) be able to reason with physical text. In the post-test, the treatment was adminis tered. Some words in the passage have missing letters. According to Just and Carpenter (1980), who studied the eye movements when reading, if a sentence contains unfamiliar words, the reader will pause in that word. Thus, when the respondents were reading the passage, whey saw the words with missing letters, they paused as their brain processed to recognize that word. The respondents extract meaning to that word as they read it. Table 3. Difference of Pre-test and Post-Test Scores Rating |Pre test frequency |Post-test frequency | |Excellent |0 |4 | |Very Good |4 |4 | |Good |8 |3 | |Poor |3 |4 | |Total Mean |2. 0 |2. 5 | *Legend: Poor 0-3; Good 4-5; Very Good 6-7; Excellent 8-10. Table 3 shows the difference of pre-test and post-test scores. As a whole, it shows that most of the students got high scores in the post-test. The total mean scores of the students in the pre-test is 2. 0 which is equivalent to Poor rating. The total mean of scores of students in the post-test is 2. wh ich is equivalent to Poor rating also. Thus, there is a 0. 5 difference in the mean scores. After computing the difference of the pre-test and post-test scores using Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test, the result of the asymptotic significance is 0. 01. Thus, the researchers should reject Ho because the result of asymptotic significance of the study is less than 0. 050. The results have showed that the students were more capable in answering the passage with missing letters. The results gathered by the researchers showed that the missing letters affect the reading comprehension of the students. It positively helped the students to understand well the passage.According to Paynter, Bodrova and Doty (2005), one of the most fundamental aspects of comprehension is the ability to deal with unfamiliar words encountered in text. In the passage, maybe the students have encountered it before so that they understand the passage. Readers who struggle with word-level tasks use up valuable cognitive space that could be allotted to deeper levels of text analysis. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The summary provides comprehensible summary on how the study was conducted. It also presents the list of findings, state the conclusion and some of the recommendations. Summary The study aimed to determine whether there are differences between reading with complete letters and reading with missing letters.Specifically, the study aimed to 1) determine the rating of IT students in the Pre-test; 2) determine the rating of IT students in the Post-test; 3) determine the significant difference between the scores obtained in the Pre-test and the scores obtained in the Post-test; 4) determine the effect of missing letters to the reading comprehension of the students. The researcher conducted their study at Cavite State University from February 17 to March 8, 2012. The researcher used the within subject design for their study. The researcher used random sampling method where they used the table of random numbers to choose their respondents. Their respondents were 2nd year BS IT students, 15 students in pre-test and another 15 students in post-test. The researchers used a survey test questionnaire that was composed of a short passage and followed by 10 questions.The formula to determine the level of students in Pre-test was frequency tallies and percentage. The formula used to determine the level of reading comprehension in Post-test was also frequency tallies and percentage. In determining the significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test scores, the formula that the researchers used was Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. The findings resolved that there is a significant difference between reading with complete letters and reading with missing letters. From the asymptotic significance obtained from the pre-test and post-test we should reject Ho and accept Ha. Conclusions Based on the findings and the data gathered the following conclusions were drawn: 1. Based on the scores of the respondents in the pre-test, the respondents got the highest rating of Very Good which ranges from 0-7. The students were not familiar to the words in the passage. The researchers conclude that those words were not in their long term memory so it was hard for the respondents to understand the passage; 2. )Based on the scores of the respondents in the post-test, the respondents got the highest rating of Excellent which ranges from 8-10. Thus, the student’s performance was excellent and they meet the highest rating compared to the pre-test. The respondents could really read fairly well even if only half of the letters are present; 3. )Based on the mean scores of the students, there is a 0. difference between reading with complete letters and reading with missing letters. The researchers conclude that the treatment, which is the missing letters, is effective in reading comprehension. As the results showed, post-test is higher than the pre-test. Thus, there is a sig nificant difference between reading with complete letters and reading with missing letters; 4. )Missing Letters affect the reading comprehension of the students. The researchers conclude that it is effective to use. Based on the scores the respondents achieved, post-test scores were higher than the pre-test scores. Thus, the students understood the passage with missing letters. RecommendationsBased on the results of the study, the researchers highly recommend the following: Students. To the students, they should use this type of reading as a practice for them in reading comprehension and for their vocabulary. Teachers. To the teachers, the researchers recommend to use this type of reading to increase their inferential comprehension. Future Researchers. To anybody who wants to pursue the same study or related to this study this will help to improve the student’s style of reading. The researchers also recommend having further study regarding this study and they should also use larger amount of participants/respondents to show the comparison in our study. APPENDICES Budgetary Estimates (Appendix A) |Cost | |Print |100 | |Computer Rent |250 | |Transportation |100 | |Total |450 Php | Calendar of Activities (Appendix B) February 13 – Chapters 1,2,3February 13,14,15 Instrumentation February 17 to March 8 – Conducting of experimental research Data Gathering March 15 – Data Analysis March 19 – Chapter 4,5 March 21 – Chapter 1,2,3,4,5 March 26,27 – Poster Presentation April 10 – Soft Bound Statistical Analysis of Data (Appendix D) Frequencies pre test level |Statistics | |Level | |N |Valid |15 | | |Missing |0 | | |Mean |2. 0000 | | |Std. Error of Mean |. 19518 | | |Std.Deviation |. 75593 | | |Minimum |1. 00 | | |Maximum |3. 00 | |level | | | |Level | |N |Valid |15 | | |Missing |0 | | |Mean |2. 5333 | | |Std. Error of Mean |. 30654 | | |Std. Deviation |1. 18723 | | |Minimum |1. 0 | | |Maximum |4. 00 | |le vel | | | | | | | |N |Mean Rank |Sum of Ranks | |level – group |Negative Ranks |4a |8. 00 |32. 00 | | |Positive Ranks |19b |12. 84 |244. 0 | | |Ties |7c | | | | |Total |30 | | | |a. level ; group | |b. level ; group | |c. level = group | |Test Statisticsb | | |level – group | | Z |-3. 351a | |Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) |. 001 | |a. Based on negative ranks. | |b.Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test | Curriculum Vitae ( Appendix F ) Contact Information Name: Glenda Mae Suansing Address: St. Michael Village, Sungay East, Tagaytay City Contact Number: 09159727469 E-mail Address: [email  protected] com Personal Information Date of Birth: August 23, 1994 Place of Birth: Indang, Cavite Citizenship: Filipino Gender: Female Educational Attainment Primary Tagaytay Elementary School Secondary Tagaytay City Science National High School College Cavite State University Bachelor of Science in Psychology Interests: Playing guitar, Reading books, Watching films Contact Information Name: Shalom E rsando Address: Brgy.Cabezas Trece Martires City Contact Number: 09107232128 E-mail Address: [email  protected] com Personal Information Date of Birth: January 15 1994 Place of Birth: Dasmarinas Cavite Citizenship: Filipino Gender: Female Educational Attainment Primary Palawit Elementary School Secondary Tanza National Trade School College Cavite State University Bachelor of Science in Psychology Interests: Reading books, watching movie, Hanging with friends and playing badminton INSTRUMENT (Pre-test) INSTRUMENT (Post-test) ———————– Reading Comprehension of 2nd year BS IT students of Cavite State University Post-test Scores Missing Letters (treatment) Pre-test Scores