Women Are at Greater Risk From Ecstasy Use

Women Are at Greater Risk From Ecstasy Use Addiction Drug Use Ecstasy/MDMA Print Women Are at Greater Risk From Ecstasy Use By Buddy T facebook twitter Buddy T is an anonymous writer and founding member of the Online Al-Anon Outreach Committee with decades of experience writing about alcoholism. Learn about our editorial policy Buddy T Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on January 08, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on May 22, 2019 Getty Images More in Addiction Drug Use Ecstasy/MDMA Cocaine Heroin Marijuana Meth Hallucinogens Opioids Prescription Medications Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery Researchers at the Academic Medical Centre, Amsterdam, Netherlands found that long-term use of the recreational drug ecstasy, especially among women, can have serious negative effects on specific cells in the brain. The Dutch study indicates that ecstasy (MDMA) can cause the irreversible loss of serotonin neurons which can result in neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, panic disorder, and disorders of impulse control. Liesbeth Reneman and colleagues investigated the effects of moderate and heavy ecstasy use, gender differences, and long-term effects of ecstasy use on serotonin neurons in different brain regions. They recruited 15 moderate ecstasy users, 23 heavy users, 16 ex-users who had stopped using ecstasy for more than a year, and 15 controls who claimed never to have used the drug. How Women Are Affected The effects of ecstasy were assessed by calculating the ratio of serotonin receptor density in different parts of the brain compared with the cerebellum by using a single-photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT). Among heavy ecstasy users, substantial decreases in overall binding ratios were seen in women but not men. In female ex-ecstasy users, overall densities of serotonin transporters were significantly higher than in heavy ecstasy users. Sample May Be Too Small But the study may not have been large enough to establish a difference in how the drug affects women differently from men, according to a commentary published in  The Lancet. George Ricaurte and Una McCann from Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine wrote: Although the study is timely and potentially important, the small sample size and methodological questions limit confidence in conclusions about differences between sexes or possibility of reversibility of the effects of MDMA [ecstasy] in human beings. Studies in larger cohorts of both sexes, free of psychiatric illnesses in which serotonin is implicated, are needed. The effects of moderate ecstasy use on serotonin neurons have not been studied, and gender differences and the long-term effects of ecstasy use on serotonin neurons have not been identified.

The Dream Of The Rood, Julian Of Norwichs Revelations And...

Religion is the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods or a particular system of faith and worship. In the world we live in many have different religion and believes. Some are forced into religion to believe this is the right way and others were brought up into that religion since birth. This make others think they are more superior than others. Religion has been passed on from generation to generation. Has religion changed over time? Yes of course. We have many religions such as Christianity, Gnosticism, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Others. According to the text or readings The Dream of the Rood, Julian of Norwichs Revelations, and Miltons Paradise Lost, they both had†¦show more content†¦The ethical paradigm traditionally associated with the treasurehouse model of mentality in Old English poetry—the sapiential economy of the accumulation and then distribution of mental valuables— converges in The Dream of the Rood with the poet’s religious ideal of the Christian faith as universally acknowledged and collectively practiced in the form of devotion to the Cross†(Mize Britt, pg 177). The roods description, had a deep connection and references to both the Christian and Pagan culture, also indicating the obedient relationship he had or shared with Jesus Christ as that of a Lord and thane. He told a story about his dream, in his dream he saw amazing, gorgeous rood-trees which lifted all the way into the air, covered or decorated with gems and covered by gold. The dreamer was laying down for a long time, until suddenly he heard the tree started speaking. The tree then started to tell its story. It all started the tree explained how it was cut down from the edge of the forest and was made into a cross by man. After being made into a cross it was placed on a hill. After being placed on the hill, he saw that men brought Jesus Christ on the hill to be placed on the cross. W hen the tree saw that the earth was trembling, the cross

September 11 2001 Revenge Against The Americans

September 11 2001, revenge against the Americans September 11, 2001, every American s nightmare. Remembered as one of the most horrendous and inconceivable hours every American underwent. Even today, the events that took place on this day affected every person in this world. Our way of life, our citizen was under attack. Thousand of lives were awfully ended by the attack. Although Al-Qaeda hated America, evidence prove it was a revenge to the American people and not a Holy war. While these attacks will be in our hearts forever, the outcomes are felt in various ways as well. On September 11, 2001, 19 militants connected with the Islamic extremist group Al-Qaeda hijacked four airliners and carried out suicide attacks against targets in the United States. Two of the planes were flown into the towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, a third plane hit the Pentagon just outside Washington, D.C. and the fourth plane crashed in a field in Pennsylvania. Frequently referred to as 9/ 11, the attacks resulted in extensive death and destruction, causing major U.S. initiatives to fight terrorism and clarifying the presidency of George W. Bush. Over 3,000 people were killed during the attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C., encompassing more than 400 police officers and firefighters (History.com). The World Trade Center was commercial complex in Manhattan bridging over sixteen acres and containing a large plaza, seven buildings, and an underground shopping mall (FAQShow MoreRelated`` The Birds Of The South ``1585 Words   |  7 PagesUNDER THE GUILLOTINE OF IDEOLOGY: POST SEPTEMBER 11, 2001 ARABIC NOVELS (A STUDY IN AMANI ABU AL-FADHL’S THE BIRDS OF THE SOUTH†) Hassan Jalal Abdullah Weshah Lecturer, Dept. of English, Hajjah University, Yemen Dr. Rafiq Zakaria Centre for Higher Learning Advanced Research,Aurangabad. 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This paper will argue that the United States and allied invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 should be a full five stars on the BBC audit, declaring it a war based on religion. The Islamic State’s attack on September 11, 2001 cause the United States and its idea of democracy to assume the role of a symbolic religion. The United States took on the role of the enemy of the Islamic State due to their unwantedRead MoreThe Crucible By Arthur Miller1533 Words   |  7 Pagesor the mishaps that may follow them. Currently, fear, paranoia, and vengeance drive racial profiling in society, inciting scores of people to ‘cry terrorist’. Unjustified displays of racism, witnessed in the persecution of Muslims as result of the 9/11 and the Paris attacks, verify that society today is a reflection of The Crucible’s in unfortunate ways. One of the factors contributing to Salem’s downfall is fear; worried friends are witches and fearful of being falsely accused, neighbors turn onRead MoreThe Nature Of Man And The Purpose Of Government887 Words   |  4 PagesEvelyn Koutsoudis September 21, 2014 Mr. Kramer AP Government The Nature of Man and The Purpose of Government Hobbes said, â€Å"†¦ the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short†¦the condition of man†¦is a condition of war of everyone against everyone.† In other words the nature of man is evil without any civil government. To save Britain merchants from an economic deficit, Parliament passed the Tea Act, granting a monopoly to the financially strapped East India CompanyRead MoreNorth Tower Of The World Trade Center1148 Words   |  5 PagesOn September 11, 2001, at 8:45 AM, Eastern Time, American Airlines flight 111, headed from Boston smashed into the north tower of the World Trade Center in New York. An hour later, a second plane crashed into the south tower at 550 miles an hour. The south tower only lasted 56 minutes, collapsing straight down, killing thousands of people, and creating a dust cloud that sent people scurrying for cover in the streets below. The north tower didn’t last much longer, also collapsing straight down, settingRead MoreAl Q aeda, the organization that the United States is in a constant, never ending battle with, the800 Words   |  4 Pagesthat the United States is in a constant, never ending battle with, the organization that has made the most impact and changed the United States forever. Al Qaeda is always making headlines with their terrorist attacks, the most known attack September 11th, 2001. This essay is about the terrorist group Al Qaeda, its history and background, Osama bin Laden, their well-known leader, and the major attacks on America. Al Qaeda, or Al Qaida, is a global militant Islamist organization. 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I do n’t even need to tell you the events that happened on that day because you have been told so many horrific stories from people who saw it happen live on the news, or you were there in the flesh or are part of the families who were so devastatingly affected by theRead MoreThe Political, Social, and Economic Changes Following 9/11 Essay examples1553 Words   |  7 PagesOn September 11 2001, an attack was made on United States. Four systematic terrorist attacks were pulled off by the group al-Qaeda simultaneously bringing down the World Trade Centre in New York and damaging the Pentagon in Washington D.C. As extensive and in depth as the cause for the attack may have been, September 11 is an event that has undoubtedly left its mark in American history. A turning point, as some would call it, of the political, social, and economic systems of the United States. Quickly

Closely Examine the Character of Melanie in Hitchcock’s the Birds Free Essays

The Birds is a psychological thriller directed by Alfred Hitchcock. It centres around Melanie, a young city girl, who journeys into danger into a small coastal town called Bodega Bay to play a practical joke on a potential lover, Mitch. A series of unfortunate Bird attacks follow her and wreck havoc on the town and its inhabitants. We will write a custom essay sample on Closely Examine the Character of Melanie in Hitchcock’s the Birds or any similar topic only for you Order Now As the film progresses, Melanie tries, on several occasions, to go against the social norm of women of the 1950’s; every time she does she gets punished and gradually destroyed until she becomes the dominant ideology.At the start of the film, Melanie seems strong and independent. From the offset she is seen as an individualist. In the first scene she is first seen walking down a street in a fitted jacket and pencil skirt, this was seen as too provocative and was not the usual dress code for a 1950’s woman; the norm would be a dress with either a swing skirt or a poodle skirt. Along with the fitted clothes, Melanie has perfectly groomed hair and perfectly painted fingernails; these are signs of her emotional state and will change throughout the film. Also in this scene the audience can hear a wolf whistle from a man directed at Melanie, she turns and smiles, telling the audience that she enjoys male attention and is comfortable and confident in the city environment. In the next scene, Melanie is in a bird shop. This is when Mitch is first seen; when Melanie first sees Mitch she immediately becomes flirtatious and thinks that she is in control of what is happening, when really Mitch is in control as he knows exactly who Melanie is while she does not know who he is.After Mitch plays a practical joke on Melanie in the bird shop, Melanie sets out to speak to him again, and when she finds out that he is not staying in his home in the city but in a small town up the coast, Bodega Bay, she sets out on her own little practical joke. This journey will take her out of her comfort zone, the city, and put her in unknown surroundings and ultimately danger. During the drive, Melanie looks very smug but is unaware that she is journeying into da nger.The actions of the two love birds in their cage and the speed of the car are deliberately made to look fake as to lull the audience in to a false sense of security and to mask the danger to come, this ties into the genre of deceit that is seen throughout the film. When Melanie reaches Bodega Bay, it is quite obvious that she is out of place; all the town’s citizens are casually dressed which contrasts with Melanie’s immaculate hair and nails and her fitted clothes. Melanie is treated as novelty by the citizens that she encounters.After she plays her practical joke on Mitch at his house, she races him back to Bodega Bay but he beats her and stands waiting for her. The mood is very light hearted as both characters are smiling but the mood changes to become very serious as Melanie is struck by a seagull on the head. This is the first bird attack and the first time, of many, that Mitch is there to rescue her from danger. After the attack Melanie is composed once again but her gloves are blood stained and she does not wear them again, symbolising that her first layer of protection is gone.This first attack is the start of Melanie’s confident and independent exterior being pecked away by the birds. After the attack Melanie goes back to Mitch’s and meets his mother, a very demanding and controlling woman. In these few scenes where they are together Melanie is seen with high angle camera shots, showing that she is weak and powerless in their home, whilst Lydia is seen with low angle camera shots, demonstrating her power and dominance over the family and Melanie.In their next encounter their roles in the household switch: Lydia becoming frail and helpless whereas Melanie is now dominant and in control. The next significant change in Melanie’s character and emotional state is during the bird attack on the petrol station. Melanie shows an act of independence and defiance by taking shelter in a Telephone Box, away from the security of Mitch and other men, but when she tries to get out again she is attacked by the birds, eventually the glass panels of the Telephone box shatter, representing her fragility.High angle shows, once again, that Melanie is weak and powerless. The paint on her fingernails is still intact but her hair is not as groomed as it started out, signifying that her emotional state and independence has been damaged again and she has been punished for her act of defiance. For the second time, Mitch has to come and rescue Melanie from the birds, showing that she is becoming more and more dependable on the security of men, especially Mitch. During the penultimate attack by the birds Melanie’s state of mind changes nce again: she has regained her strength and has taken over the role of mother of the family. This is shown by low angle camera shots and in her actions. When Mitch’s sister, Cathy, gets sick, it is Melanie, not the mother, that takes her to the kitchen. However, these moments of defiance are short lived, for after the birds appear to have left the house, Melanie hears bird sounds coming from the attic and climbs the stairs, on her own, to see what it is.She hesitates at the door of the attic, there is a close up of her hand and her nails are still intact, and when she does open the door, she does so only to find a flock of birds which attack her mercilessly. This, her last act of independence, ends in disaster and her destructi on as an independent woman. For the final time Mitch comes to rescue Melanie from the birds. Melanie’s destruction is symbolised by her looking dishevelled and wrapped up in bandages. Mitch then carries Melanie to the car, demonstrating Melanie’s total dependence on Mitch.Melanie’s destruction is finally symbolised by an extreme close up of her nails, which are completely broken and chipped. The ways in which Melanie changes over the course of The Birds, her frame of mind could be compared to a yo-yo. At the start she was completely independent and self sufficient, but during different parts of the film she either lost some of her independence or gained some. By the end of the film, Melanie ends up being the polar-opposite of what she started out to be. At the end she was totally dependent on Mitch and had lost all independence. Making her the dominant ideology of a woman of the 1950’s. How to cite Closely Examine the Character of Melanie in Hitchcock’s the Birds, Papers

The Removal of the Compulsory Retirement Age free essay sample

However, our superannuation system is in a transition phase, and some the details of the changes are contained in the table below: Age regulations and qualifications governing superannuation and social security systems 55| Age to which superannuation entitlements are compulsorily preserved. From age 55, preserved superannuation becomes available upon retirement. For people aged 55 to 60 years, Regulations under the  Superannuation Industry (Supervision) Act 1993  (SIS regulations) define retirement as permanent withdrawal from the workforce. A phased increase in the superannuation preservation age to 60 is to begin in 2015 and will affect people born after 30 June 1960. By 2025, people born after June 1964 will be subject to a preservation age of 60 years. | | People aged 55 years and over can access a range of social security pensions and benefits depending on their circumstances, e. g. Disability Support Pension, Newstart Allowance, Carer Pension and Widow Allowance. From September 1997, superannuation assets of those aged 55 and over were taken into account under the income and assets tests after 9 months on income support (pending legislation). We will write a custom essay sample on The Removal of the Compulsory Retirement Age or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 60| Under SIS Regulations, after age 60, retirement may be taken to have occurred upon cessation of a period of gainful employment even if the person intends to re-enter gainful employment. Current qualifying age for Mature Age Allowance. | 61| Womens current qualifying age for age pension. The age pension age for women is being slowly increased to 65 over the next 17 years (reaching 65 years in July 2013). | 65| Mens qualifying age for age pension. | 70| From 1 July 1997 people were allowed to continue to contribute to a regulated superannuation fund up to age 70, provided they are gainfully employed for at least 10 hours per week over the year. | http://wiki. answers. com/Q/What_is_the_workplace_compulsory_retirement_age_Australia http://www. alrc. gov. au/publications/2-recruitment-and-employment-law/compulsory-retirement Most people retire at 55 years or over. According to the  Australian Bureau of Statistics, the average age Australians intend to retire is 63 for men and 61 for women. Compulsory retirement at 65 was made unlawful in South Australia in 1993. It is against the law to dismiss staff because of their age unless there is an occupational reason to be a certain age. Most staff cant be forced to retire because of age except: * judges and magistrates must retire at 70 * Australian Defence Force personnel must retire at 65. The average retirement age is likely to increase as we have an ageing population. More workers will move into retirement age and fewer will enter the labour market. As a result, there will be a shortage of workers. Governments and many employers are already trying to encourage workers to stay on longer by offering assistance to older staff and options like  phased retirement. You can retain your staff past retirement age by offering  phased retirement or flexible working conditions. http://www. eoc. sa. gov. au/eo-business/employers/staffing/dismissing-retrenching-and-retiring-staff/retiring-staff/when-do-staf The likelihood of being retired increased with age. For those aged 45-49 years, just 5% were retired, compared to 16% of 55-59 year olds, 68% of 65-69 year olds and 87% of those aged 70 years and over. In 2010-11, 63% of men aged 45 years and over were in the labour force, 33% had retired, and 3% were not in the labour force but had not yet retired. In contrast, 50% of women aged 45 years and over were in the labour force, 39% had retired and the remaining 5% were not in the labour force but had not yet retired. The average age at retirement from the labour force for people aged 45 years and over in 2010-11 was 53. years (57. 9 years for men and 49. 6 years for women). Of the 1. 4 million men who had retired from the labour force: 27% had retired aged less than 55 years; 53% had retired aged 55-64 years; and 20% had retired aged 65 years and over. The 1. 8 million women who had retired from the labour force had retired on average at a younger age than men. The ages at which women retirees had retired from the labour force were as foll ows: 57% had retired aged less than 55 years; 35% had retired aged 55-64 years; and % had retired aged 65 years and over. Of the 2. 2 million retired people who had worked in the last 20 years, 94% had held a full-time job at some stage. For nearly three-quarters (72%) of those who held a full-time job, their last job held prior to retirement was full-time. The remainder worked part-time before retiring. http://www. abs. gov. au/ausstats/[emailprotected] nsf/Latestproducts/6238. 0Main%20Features1July%202010%20to%20June%202011? opendocumentamp;tabname=Summaryamp;prodno=6238. 0amp;issue=July%202010%20to%20June%202011amp;num=amp;view= ttp://jobsearch. about. com/b/2013/03/08/too-old-to-get-hired. htm In advanced and developing economies, ageing populations and low birth rates are emphasising the need for retaining and sustaining competent older workers. This paper examines human resource and governmental policy and practice implications from the contradictory accounts directed towards those workers aged over 44 years, who are usually classi? ed as ‘older workers’. It focuses on a key and paradoxical impediment in the workforce retention of these workers. Using Australia as a case study, this paper argues that policies and practices to retain and sustain workers aged 45 or more need to de-emphasise the term ‘older workers’ and reconsider how human resource management and government policies, as well as practices by workers themselves, might pursue longer and more productive working lives for employees aged over 45. It seeks to elaborate the paradox of the (under)valuing of older workers’ contributions and provides direction for retaining and supporting the ongoing employability of these workers. It concludes by proposing that government, industry bodies and sector councils that seek to change employer attitudes will likely require a dual process comprising both engagement with older workers and a balanced appraisal of their worth. Alone, subsidies and/or mandation may well serve to entrench age bias without measures to redress that bias through a systematic appraisal of their current and potential contributions. In addition, to support this transformation of bias and sustain their employability, older workers will likely need to exercise greater agency in their work and learning. Quite consistently across international and national surveys, a pattern emerges of employers and managers holding older workers in low esteem which appears quite entrenched. Indeed, managers’ assessments of older workers are consistently negative, seemingly irrespective of appraisals of their actual performance (Rosen and Jerdee 1988). The evidence from studies across Europe and North America commonly report that employers are far more likely to fund the training of the young and well educated, rather than older workers (Brunello 2001; Brunello and Medio 2001; Giraud 2002). Truly, some northern European countries adopt more positive attitudes towards and claim a strong sense of obligation to older workers as exercised through a set of national policies and practices (Bishop 1997; Smith and Billett 2003). Yet, it is noteworthy that elsewhere the ways in which employers distribute and fund developmental opportunities for their employees, is resistant to legislated (Giraud 2002) and mandated measures (Bishop 1997). Instead, the privileging of youth (and perhaps never more so than when they become a scarce commodity within ageing populations) is that which shapes employers’ decisionmaking about the distribution of sponsored workplace-based opportunities for learning. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1251This suggests that government intervention by pressing or subsidising employers to employ older workers will not be suf? cient, unless the attitude of employers can in some way be transformed. Australian studies of attitudes towards older workers report similar ? ndings to those reported elsewhere. One study concluded that ‘regardless of the perceived more positive qualities of older workers , employers appear to prefer to recruit employees in the younger age groups for most employee categories’ with ‘minimal interest in recruiting anyone over 45 years for any job and no preference for anyone 56 years or older’ (Steinberg, Donald, Najman and Skerman 1996, p. 157). Despite the increasing recognition of the looming labour shortage at that time and following it, such attitudes appear to have been slow to change. Yet, such attitudes are quite potent. Taylor and Walker (1998, p. 44) concluded that ‘workplace perceptions about older workers (and different groups of older workers) may directly in? uence not only their prospects for gaining employment but also their prospects for development and advancement within an organisation’. A 2003 guide by the Business Council of Australia (BCA) identi? ed numerous ‘readily accepted negative stereot ypes of mature-age workers’, including their lacking motivation and enthusiasm, being close-minded, more susceptible to injury and illness, having outdated skills, less capable, unwilling to take on new training or challenges, risk averse and having less potential for development (p. 2). Yet, the issues raised by the BCA (2003) pose dif? culties in generalising about employer attitudes and practices. In a telephone survey of some 1000 enterprises in the business services sector, which included computer, legal, accounting and employment services, Bittman, Flick and Rice (2001) found no clear pattern of negative attitudes towards employing older workers. They claimed (p. vii) that ‘despite [employers’] reputation for favouring younger, risk-taking innovators, the study revealed a preference for a diverse workforce of intelligent, reliable, team workers with industry rather than computing experience’. However, Gringart, Helmes and Speelman (2005) claim the methodology used in that study did not allow respondents to systematically stereotype workers on the basis of age. Moreover, the business service sector may well be one of those better disposed to employing and supporting older workers than many others, as its work may be more age tolerant than others. Across a range of industries, a survey of 8000 Australian employers found the most proactive recruitment for mature age workers was in the ? ance sector (47% of ? rms), compared with only 32% in information technologies and 24% in telecommunications (Deare 2006). This kind of difference indicates that employer attitudes are not uniform in their application or intensity, across industry sectors. For instance, in their 2001 study, Gringart and Helmes found that older female jobseekers were discriminated against more than males. Yet, 4 years later, the researchers (Gringart et al. 2005) found no signi? cant gender difference. They concluded rather baldly that the sample of 128 ‘hiring decision makers’ in businesses of up to 50 employees was generally unlikely to hire older workers. These studies indicate that employer attitude is central not only to recruiting and retaining older workers, but also in advancing support for maintaining their employability through opportunities to further develop and apply more widely the knowledge they have learnt. Indeed, Howell, Buttigieg and Webber (2006, p. ) concluded that senior management’s support for diversity and effective utilisation of older workers as part of the retail workforce resulted in age-positive practices by those managers who supervise older workers. Nonetheless, in its own way, this kind of endorsement indicates, ? rstly, the importance of attitudes being premised on the basis of informed accounts of performance and not age bias and, secondly, that these attitudes can change. 1252 S. Billett et al. Such change in attitudes would n eed to be broadly applied across decision-making in businesses. For instance, the BCA (2003, p. 8) claimed that voluntary retirement is often seen as a workforce management tool, but that such policies are often based on age alone, and that consideration is not given to the employees’ skill and experience pro? les. The depth and pervasiveness of the employer discrimination against older workers are illustrated further in the BCA’s (2003, p. 11) ? ndings which suggest that recruitment agencies may actually practise ‘ageism’ when shortlisting applicants for their clients, a claim denied by the agencies (Hovenden 2004). Certainly, some of these agencies promote mature age employment through their websites. One of them commissioned a report on the implications of the ageing population in the Australian workforce that described ageism as ‘a particularly insidious form of discrimination’ (Jorgensen 2004, p. 13). Recommending that employers needed to confront their own prejudices, Jorgensen also suggested (p. 13) that ‘policy approaches that deal with ageism also need to be carefully framed so as not to stigmatise older workers, isolate younger workers or impose obligations on older workers who simply do not have the health or desire to continue in full time or part time employment’. It follows from here that in the current social and ? nancial environments, speci? c and targeted policies and sustained initiatives are likely to be required to change attitudes about older workers’ occupational capacities and employability across their working lives. However, these initiatives will need to overcome a range of societal and workplace barriers for the maximum retention of and full utilisation of these workers’ capacities. Key barriers here include a societal preference of privileging youth over age across countries with advanced industrial economies. This preference manifests itself in workplace practices of not only favouring the employment of younger workers, but also directing far more resources towards their development than older workers, among other groups (Brunello 2001; Brunello and Medio 2001). These preferences seem powerful and enduring. Even evidence suggesting that older workers are as capable as other workers and have the very attributes employers claim to value, seemingly fail to change management’s views, i. e. f those who employ and make decisions about workers’ advancement and access to development opportunities. Some might argue that this preference will change as older workers become an increasingly common element of the workforce and a necessity for employers. Countering such a claim is the prospect that a scarcity of younger people may well lead to greater enterprise competition for and sponsorship of younger and well-educated workers and more intense resourcing of these workers and away from o lder workers. Moreover, despite the growing presence of older workers in the Australian workforce over the last 20 years, little appears to have changed in terms of employer preference or workplace responses to their growing participation. Salient here is the comparison of older workers with women workers. Despite their increasing participation in the workforce, women workers across a range of national workforces have struggled to secure worthwhile work conditions, despite legislative arrangements associated with equal opportunity (Cavanagh 2008). Therefore, unless signi? ant changes occur in both the attitudes towards and Australian employers’ practices, older workers may well increasingly struggle to secure worthwhile work, and opportunities for the development and advancement required to retain them in socially and economically vital work and improve their effectiveness in that work. Indeed, there are potentially strong negative consequences here. Consequences of negative employer attitu des and practices There are both personal and societal costs of employer attitudes and practices that discriminate unreasonably against older workers. These costs include the limits in range of The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1253employment options for these workers and dif? culties becoming employed. Indeed, a consequence of policies designed to promote a deregulated and ? exible labour market is the growing distinction between ‘core sector jobs’ (‘good’ jobs that require high skills, offer decent wages and provide bene? ts such as support for training and development) and ‘peripheral sector jobs’ (‘dead end’ jobs that require few skills, offer poor wages and few bene? s, as well as little in the way of job security) (Kossen and Pedersen 2008, p. 5). Given such a bifurcation, the great risk is that older workers will be seen as only being employable in the peripheral sectors. This may well be particularly true for the range of options that are available for many older workers. Challenging the notion of meritocracy in the labour market, Kossen and Pedersen ( 2008, p. 6) cite research indicating that older workers who have been excluded from employment ‘experience far greater dif? culty in rejoining the core orkforce’. The point here is that older workers may have greater dif? culty securing worthwhile work when they re-enter the workforce. Indeed, the negative attitudes that older workers experience may well contribute to the widespread ‘culture’ of early retirement in Australia (Encel 2003) in which workforce participation by those over 55 is considerably lower than in many other OECD countries (ABS 2007) as these workers fail to ? nd meaningful employment, and withdraw from the labour market. A recruiting agency (Adage, n. d. 1) concluded that mature age workers are more likely to ‘experience the compounding effect of being out of the workforce resulting in being seen as less employable’. Another agency reported that nearly three-quarters of 2000 baby boomers surveyed believed that it is nearly i mpossible to get a job after age 45 (Brinsden 2007). The studies cited above, along with a range of other research ? ndings (see OECD 2006a, 2006b; Syed 2006; Kossen and Pedersen 2008) con? rm that age prejudice is alive and well in Australian workplaces, and likely play out most heavily on those who are currently out of employment. Consequently, a priority for policy is to ? nd ways of supporting unemployed older workers’ re-employment, and in worthwhile work, and ? nding ways of praising their worth that can transform the attitudes of their employers. Yet, others suggest that factors other than age alone play key roles in decision-making, particularly that such decisions are based on a business case, not on ageism. In an Equal Opportunity Commission seminar, Ranzijn (2005, p. 1) argued that ‘in general, age discrimination is not a function of a negative attitude towards older workers, but based on an implicit cost/bene? analysis’. The OECD (2006a, 2006b, p. 10) also noted that a dif? culty for employers with older workers is ‘wages and non-wage labour costs that rise more steeply with age than productivity’ and also that there are ‘shorter expected pay-back periods on investments in the training of older workers as well as their lower average educational attainmentâ€℠¢. Perhaps, because of such imperatives, Encel (2003, p. 4) warned that age discrimination is ‘commonly covert and evasive and easily masked’. Similarly, Bittman et al. (2001, p. 6) reported to an Australian House of Representatives inquiry into older workers’ unemployment that the latter were consistently advised that they were ‘over quali? ed for lower positions and under quali? ed for higher positions’. Whatever the reasons advanced by employers for not retaining or employing mature age workers, Ranzijn (2005, p. 8) pointed out that the changing demographics of the workforce will inevitably mean that employers will have to resort to older workers in order to maintain productivity, a point also made by the OECD (2006b) based on a multi-nation survey. However, such a pragmatic and expedient premise may not be the best one to proceed with. Despite becoming increasingly essential for the production of goods and services, older workers will continue to be seen as ‘last resort workers’: at the bottom of employers’ preferred kind of workers (Quintrell 2000). Employees categorised in this way will often be a low priority for employer-sponsored development opportunities and support in the 1254 S. Billett et al. workplace (Billett and Smith 2003) of the kinds required to retain them and further develop their capacities. Hence, even if the government supports the re-employment of older workers, it is likely that within the workplaces the opportunities are still likely to be shaped by a cultural preference where youth is championed and privileged, and where age is seen as a natural decline (Giddens 1997). Therefore, older workers cannot be con? dent of being afforded the kinds of employer support required to maintain their workplace competence and successfully negotiate work transitions. Moreover, given the privileging of youth, it is unlikely that older workers will make demands for employer-funded training, lest they reinforce the sentiment of being a liability. Analogously, Church (2004) refers to disabled workers who have particular needs for support, yet are strategic and cautious in their demands for workplace support, including that from their co-workers, lest they be seen as liabilities in cost-conscious work environments. Nevertheless, the widely held view among employers that older workers are less able and in? xible, and offer limited return on developmental opportunities is questioned by data arising from informants with direct experience of these workers. McIntosh (2001), for instance, notes that enterprises actually employing older workers value their contributions in quite distinct ways: survey responses of nearly 400 American employers and human resource development managers characterised older workers as: (a) being ? exible and open to change, (b) ha ving up-to-date skills, (c) interested in learning new tasks and (d) willing to take on challenging tasks. Furthermore, 68% of the respondents concluded that training older workers costs less or the same as training their younger counterparts; 57% reported that age does not affect the amount of time required to train an employee (14% disagreed) and 49% believed that older workers grasp new concepts as well as younger workers (18% disagreed). In all, this survey portrays older workers as ideal employees, which confounds the sentiment behind practices that distribute employer-funded support away from these workers. The exercise of this sentiment may also re? ect the contradictory and confusing discourse that many older workers experience and try to understand in the workplace: they are essential to maintain the production of goods and services, yet discriminated against in terms of the opportunities afforded them. Despite the suggestion in the survey reported by McIntosh (2001), few studies effectively describe the reaction and role of older workers to the changing nature of work processes. Indeed, McNair, Flynn, Owen, Humphreys and Wood? ld (2004) claim their surveys indicate that most workers reported not being given assistance to negotiate new work roles and new work as their work life transforms. Hence, this reinforces not only the lack of support, but also the need for and apparent success of these workers being able to independently develop their capacities. Consequently, policies and practices by government, industry bodies and industry sector interests may have to interweave both suppor t for older workers’ re-employment or continuing employment, with processes that also attempt to transform the views and perspectives of employers. Yet, sitting in here also is the need to develop and support these workers’ capacities to be agentic learners, i. e. in line with their own interests and intentions (Billett and vanWoerkom 2006). Direct subsidies may well indeed reinforce the perspective that positions older workers as being de? cient and worthy of societally incurred subsidies, and places employers as being only able to employ and promote the interests of these workers when such subsidies are available. It would then seem that policies and practices are needed to both engage employers with older workers and promote their worth to employers in a way which incrementally in? ences their decision-making. It is these kinds of engagement and development that will be required to both overcome and transform well-entrenched preferences. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1255All of the above points to the importance of identifying what has to be done to effectively retain older workers and develop their employability. Added here is the prospect that the fewer available younger workers will be in high demand and, as such, are unlikely to select low-status occupations such as aged care. Hence, and as noted, a key consideration for approaches to improving policy and practice for older workers is shifting employer attitudes towards a more positive accounting of the capabilities and potentialities of these workers. Policy reform is needed to respond to engage and inform to secure such a shift. Therefore, it is helpful to identify what has been done to bring about such changes, policy wise. References Adage (n. d), ‘Why Adage Targets Mature Professionals,’ www. adage. com. au Ainsworth, S. (2001), ‘The Discursive Construction of the Older Worker Identity: A Re? ction on Process and Methods,’ Tamara: The Journal of Critical Postmodern Science, 1, 4, 29–46. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2004), ‘Paid Work: Mature Age Workers,’ Australian Social Trends, series, catalogue no. 4102. 0, June 15, Canberra, ABS. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2007), ‘Skilling Mature Age Australians for Work,’ Year Book Australia, ca talogue no. 1301. 0, February 7, Canberra, ABS. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2008), ‘Population Projections – a Tool for Examining Population Ageing,’ Australian Social Trends series, catalogue no. 4102. 0, June 15, Canberra, ABS. Australian National Training Authority (2004), Increasing the Vocational Education and Training Participation and Achievement of Older Workers: Ideas for Action, Brisbane: ANTA. Billett, S. (2010), Promoting and Supporting Lifelong Employability for Singapore’s Workers Aged 45 and Over, Singapore: Institute for Adult Learning. Billett, S. , and Smith, A. (2003), ‘Compliance, Engagement and Commitment: Increasing Employer Expenditure in Training,’ Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 53, 3, 251–269. Billett, S. , and vanWoerkom, M. (2006), ‘Older Workers and Learning Through Work: The Need for Agency and Critical Re? ction,’ in Promoting Lifelong Learning for Older Workers – an International Overview, eds. T. Tikkanen and B. Nyhan, Cedefop Reference Series 65. Luxembourg: EUR-OP, pp. 177–189. Bishop, J. H. (1997), ‘What We know About Employer Provided Training: A Review of the Literature,’ Research in Labour E conomics, 16, 19–87. Bittman, M. , Flick, M. , and Rice, J. (2001), ‘The Recruitment of Older Australian Workers: A Survey of Employers in a High Growth Industry,’ UNSW, Report for Department of Family and Community Services, Social Policy Research Centre, Sydney. Brinsden, C. 2007), ‘Mature-age Workers Pessimistic Over Future,’ The Australian, 9 July, online. Brunello, G. (2001), ‘On the Complementarity Between Education and Training in Europe,’ IZA discussion paper 309, Forschungsinstituit zur Zukunft der Arbeit- IZA, Institute for the Study of Labour, Zurich. Brunello, G. , and Medio, A. (2001), ‘An Explanation of International Differences in Education and Workplace Training,’ European Economic Review, 45, 2, 307–322. Business Council of Australia (2003), Age Can Work: A Business Guide for Supporting Older Workers, Melbourne: BCA. Cavanagh, J. (2008), ‘Women Auxiliary Workers’ Learning and Discovering â€Å"Self† Through Work,’ in Emerging Perspectives of Learning Through Work, eds. S. Billett, C. Harties and A. Etela? pelto, Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishing, BV, pp. 67–82. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 1259Church, K. (2004), ‘Dancing Lessons: A Choreography of Disability in Corporate Culture,’ Paper presented at the WALL Annual Meeting, Toronto. Colebatch, T. (2009), ‘Retirement by 70 a Fading Hope for Many,’ The Age, 25 February, online. Deare, S. (2006), ‘IT and Telecomms Inactive on Mature Workers,’ ZDNet Australia. www. zdnet. com. au/news/business/soa/IT-and-telecomms-inactive-on-mature-workers/0,139023166, 139251015,00. htm Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2008), ‘Outcome 8: Workforce Participation,’ DEEWR Budget Statements – Outcomes and Performance. www. deewr. gov. au/ deewr/Publications/Budget Department of Employment and Workplace Relations (2005), Workforce Tomorrow, Canberra: DEWR. Dymock, D. , Billett, S. , Martin, G. , and Johnson, G. 2009), ‘Retaining and Sustaining the Competence of Older Workers: An Australian Perspective,’ Paper presented at the conference, Lifelong learning revisited: What next? June 24–26, Stirling University, Scotland. Encel, S. (2003), ‘Age Can Work: The Case for Older Australians Staying in the Workforce,’ A report to the Australian Council of Trade Unions and the Business Council of A ustralia, Sydney. Giddens, A. (1997), Sociology (3rd ed. ), Cambridge: Polity Press. Giraud, O. (2002), â€Å"Firms† Further Training Practices and Social Exclusion: Can Industrial Relations Systems Provide Greater Equality? Theoretical and Empirical Evidence from Germany and France,’ in Education, Training and Employment Dynamics: Transitional Labour Markets in the European Union, eds. K. Schoman and P. J. Connell, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 300–303. Gringart, E. , Helmes, E. , and Speelman, C. (2005), ‘Exploring Attitudes Toward Older Workers Among Australian Employers: An Empirical Study,’ Journal of Aging and Social Policy, 17, 3, 85–103. Hovenden, D. (2004), ‘Fishy Memories on Ageing Workforce Crisis,’ Human Resources Magazine. www. humanresourcesmagazine. com. au/articles/15/0c019a15. asp Howell, S. Buttigieg, D. , and Webber, W. (2006), ‘Management Attitudes to Older Workers in the Retail Sector,’ Monash Business Review, 2, 3, 1–10. Jorgensen, B. (2004), The Ageing Population: Implications for the Australian Workforce, Sydney: Hudson Global Resources and Human Capital Solutions. Kossen, C. , and Pedersen, C. (2008), ‘Older Workers in Australia: The Myths, the Realities and the Battle over Workforce â€Å"Flexibility†,’ Journal of Management and Organization, 14, 1, 73–84. McIntosh, B. (2001),An Employer’s Guide to Older Workers: How to Win Them Back and Convince Them to Stay. ww. doleta. gov/Seniors/other_docs/EmplGuide. pdf McNair, S. , Flynn, M. , Owen, L. , Humphreys, C. , and Wood? eld, S. (2004),Changing Work in Later Life: A Study of Job Transitions, London: University of Surrey, Centre for Research into the Older Workforce. Naegele, G. , and Walker, A. (2006), A Guide to Good Practice in Age Management, Dublin: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Naughtin, G. (2008), ‘Social Inclusion and Older People,’ in Social Inclusion Down Under: Symposium Proceedings, Brotherhood of St. Laurence. www. sl. org. au/naughtin_symposium_ paper_26Jun08. pdf Neville, I. (2008), ‘The Australian Labour Market: Challenges and Resp onses,’ Seminar presentation, Canberra, Labour Supply and Skills Branch, Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. www. gemspl. com. au/bipartite2008/Proceedings/ Ivan%20Neville%20Presp. pdf NSW Labor (2008), ‘Supporting Older Workers,’ 9 July, NSW Labor. www. nswalp. com/blog/358/ supporting-older-workers Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2006a), ‘Live Longer, Work Longer: A Synthesis Report,’ Summary. Paris: OECD. www. oecd. org/els/employment/olderworkers. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2006b), Live Longer, Work Longer: A Synthesis Report, Paris: OECD. Price, R. , and Colley, L. (2007), ‘Assessing HR Strategies for Retaining an Aging Workforce,’ in 15th International Employment Relations Association Conference: Working Lives, Working Choices, July, 9–13, Canterbury, England. Queensland Government (2008), Experience Pays Pack, Brisbane: Department of Employment and Industrial Relations. 260 S. Billett et al. Quintrell, M. (2000), ‘Older and Wiser; or Just at the End of the Line? ’ Westminster Studies in Education, 23, 19–31. Ranzijn, R. (2005), ‘Discrimination Against the Older Worker: Psychology and Economics,’ Paper presented at seminar, ‘Of Working Age,’ May, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sydney. Rolland, L. (2007), ‘Ageing and Work in 2030: In or Out of Our Hands? ’ Paper prepared for forum, ‘Ageing 2030 – Creating the future,’ Sydney, NSW Government. Rosen, B. , and Jerdee, T. H. 1988), ‘Managing Older Workers’ Careers,’Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 6, 37–74. Smith, A. , and Billett, S. (2003), Enhancing Employers’ Expenditure on Training, Adelaide: National Centre for Vocational Education Research. Steinberg, M. , Donald, K. , Najman, J. , and Skerman, H. (1996), ‘Attitudes of Employees and Employers Towards Older Workers in a Climate of Anti-Discrimination,’Australian Journal on Ageing, 15, 4, 154–158. Syed, J. (2006), ‘Older Workers in Australia: A Policy Perspective,’ Journal of Economic and Social Policy, 1, 11, 21–43. Taylor, P. , and Walker, A. (1998), ‘Employers and Older Workers: Attitudes and Employment Practices,’ Ageing and society, 18, 641–658. The Treasury (2010), ‘Australia to 2050: Future Challenges,’ (Intergenerational Report), Canberra, Australian Government. Tikkanen, T. (1997, May), ‘Consequences of Unemployment on Professional Competency,’ Paper presented at the Nordic Conference on Adult Education, Trondheim, Norway. Tikkanen, T. , Lahn, L. , Ward, P. , and Lyng, K. (2002), Working Life Changes and Training of Older Workers, Trondheim: Vox. an Dijk, T. A. (2008), Discourse and Power, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Victorian Government (2005), ‘The Ageing Workforce,’ The State of Working Victoria Project, Information Paper No. 4, Melbourne. Weller, S. (2007), ‘Discrimination, Labour Markets and the Labour Market Prospects of Older Workers: What Can a Legal Case Teach Us? ’ Work, Employment and Society, 21, 417â⠂¬â€œ437. Wooden, M. , VandenHeuvel, A. , and Cully, M. (2001), Barriers to Training for Older Workers and Possible Policy Solutions, Adelaide: DETYA/NILS, Flinders University The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 22, No. 6, March 2011, 1248–1261 Employees. Theyre the one thing that businesses everywhere have a need for. And not just employees, but employees who are honest, responsible, dependable, loyal, focused, organized and mature. Is this too much to ask? U. S. employers spends millions of man hours each year placing ads, prescreening and interviewing candidates, and hiring and training workers, only to find that many of the employees they hire work for them for just a ew months only to decide they dont want to just be a clerk anymore or feel something betters come along as they work their way up the corporate ladder. So where can businesses find a dependable, steady workforce that has no plans to move up and out? A workforce dedicated to the job at hand and that takes pride in its work? Who will cost them less to hire, train and maintain? The answer? Older workers. Below are twelve reasons why hiring older workers can he lp you maintain a reliable, dedicated workforce and provide a significant cost savings for both the short and long term. . Dedicated  workers produce higher quality work, which can result in a significant cost savings for you. Stories abound of highly committed older workers finding others potentially costly mistakes regarding everything from misspelling of client names to pricing errors and accounting mistakes. 2. Punctuality  seems to be a given for older workers. Most of them look forward to going to work each day, so theyre likely to arrive on time and be ready to work. 3. Honesty  is common among older workers, whose values as a group include personal integrity and a devotion to the truth. 4. Detail-oriented, focused and attentive  workers add an intangible value that rubs off on all employees and can save your business thousands of dollars. One business owner I know once told me that one of his older workers saved his company more than $50,000 on one large mailing job. The 75-year-old clerical worker recognized that all the ZIP codes were off by one digit. Neither the owners mailing house nor his degreed and highly paid marketing manager had noticed it. 5. Good listeners  make great employees because theyre easier to trainolder employees only have to be told once what to do. 6. Pride in a job well done  has become an increasingly rare commodity among younger employees. Younger workers want to put in their time at work and leave, while older employees are more willingly to stay later to get a job done because of their sense of pride in the final product. 7. Organizational skills  among older workers mean employers who hire them are less likely to be a part of this startling statistic: More than a million man hours are lost each year simply due to workplace disorganization. 8. Efficiency and the confidence  to share their recommendations and ideas make older workers ideal employees. Their years of experience in the workplace give them a superior understanding of how jobs can be done more efficiently, which saves companies money. Their confidence, built up through the years, means they wont hesitate to share their ideas with management. 9. Maturity  comes from years of life and work experience and makes for workers who get less rattled when problems occur. 10. Setting an example  for other employees is an intangible value many business owners appreciate. Older workers make excellent mentors and role models, which makes training other employees less difficult. 11. Communication skillsknowing when and how to communicateevolve through years of experience. Older workers understand workplace politics and know how to diplomatically convey their ideas to the boss. 12. Reduced labor costs  are a huge benefit when hiring older workers. Most already have insurance plans from prior employers or have an additional source of income and are willing to take a little less to get the job they want. They understand that working for a company can be about much more than just collecting a paycheck. Any business owner whos hesitant to hire an older worker should consider these twelve benefits. Older workers unique skills and valuesand the potential savings to your company in time and moneymake hiring them a simple matter of rethinking the costs of high turnover in a more youthful workforce vs. the benefits of experience and mature standards older workers bring to the mix. You simply do not have the time or resources to deal with high employee turnover. The next time you need to make a hiring decision, you should seriously consider older workers: Their contribution to your company could positively impact your bottom line for years to come. Stephen Bastien isa business consultant and an expert on leadership and managing employees. Hes the author of  Yes, One Person Can Make a Difference  and  Born to Be. Having started several successful businesses, his current venture, Bastien Financial Publications, provides businesses with the latest developments on fast-growing and distressed companies nationwide through his daily newsletters. Visit his site  for more information on his financial publications, books or consulting services. Read more:  http://www. entrepreneur. com/article/167500#ixzz2QXXcMEQO

Ethical Reasoning to Determine the Course of Action

Ethical Reasoning to Determine the Course of Action Developing software that controls the autopilot system on a prototype of a commercial airplane is highly recommendable for safety reasons. Testing the system suitably is equally imperative. Hurrying up the testing to meet the publicly announced testing deadline may lead to compromising the reliability and safety of the entire aircraft system.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical Reasoning to Determine the Course of Action specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Various theories recommend different methods of handling the moral dilemma.  The managers, travelers and professional bodies have the right to obtain trustworthy information about the security system installed in the aircraft. Bodies such as the Global Agenda Council on Space Security and Department of Defense Space Management have legal and moral responsibilities for ensuring space safety. An engineer also has the responsibility to model an autopilot that recei ves data from the Global Positioning System software installed in the aircraft. The GPS receiver should be able to calculate the aircraft’s position in space. Equipped with such positioning information devices, an autopilot helps keep the plane straight. Moreover, it helps efficiently execute the flight plans. Performing the right task is essential. It would be morally challenging to decide whether to implement the universal professional demands or those of the boss or not. There are two alternative actions for solving the dilemma. The first possible action is implementing the demands.The other option is objecting to implement them. Objecting to implement the unprofessional demands is the best course of action to take since it would guarantee the safety of those on-board. The decision to object to the demands obeys the rules of Kantianism theory. The theory states that what an individual desires to accomplish and what he/she should accomplish are often incompatible. This mean s that an individual may make decisions that result to immediate discomfort and unhappiness. However, the decision should ultimately lead to satisfaction. The entire rationale of morality is taking the right course of action just for the sake of it. The manager’s appreciation of the intention to test the aircraft appropriately should have no impact on the decision to turn down his/her request. The short-lived feeling of displeasure should not also have an impact on the decision made. Therefore, I would take the decision to comply with the correct rules and procedures and save lives of people and the aircraft.  Certain groups of people may disagree with the decision. This may be due to their inability to determine independently what is either wrong or right.Advertising Looking for essay on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Kant states that an individual determines his/her behavior by making use of the l aw of autonomy. Therefore, a decision is either wrong or right depending on the intention of the action. In addition, morality is never relative. An individual is either morally upright or not. This happens because morality is not determined by the outcome of the decision but by the intention of the action. Since it is impractical to predict accurately the consequences of human actions, I would adopt the Kantianism theory in order to save the situation. This means that the task is accomplished professionally. The action would ensure that the stakeholders incur no losses. However, if they incur losses due to the decision, I would remain contented that the intention was non-malicious and the consequences were beyond my control. Alternatively, one would prefer to act based on the theory of Consequentialism. The accuracy of this theory is determined by two ethical principles. The first principle states that the consequences of an act establish whether an action is morally right or not. The other principle affirms that the degree of superiority of the results determines the scale for measuring the morality of the action. The problem with this theory is that it is difficult to accurately predict the outcome of an action. A person who adopts this theory can choose to comply with the demands of the boss and keep details of their action secret. They may comply with unprofessional requests and hope that no evil would befall the stakeholders. Another group of people may prefer to adopt the theory of Virtue Ethics. The hypothesis deemphasizes rules, consequences, and particular acts. It greatly focuses on the personality of the actor. The important factor, according to this hypothesis, is whether the person who is acting is articulating excellent personality or not. Therefore, an act is considered to be right when performing this act, the individual exercises, demonstrates or builds up an ethically virtuous character. Any one undergoing through similar challenges can rely on the theory, evaluate the moral character of the boss, and comply with the demands, particularly if he/she is convinced that the boss is morally upright. Conclusively, the right decision should not be based on general assumptions. The character of the boss has no direct influence on the consequences of the decision. Similarly, the theory of Consequentialism may be irrelevant since outcomes of decisions are influenced by a myriad of factors. Some of the factors are beyond human control. I, therefore, prefer the Kantianism theory because it requires an individual to take control over his/her decisions.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical Reasoning to Determine the Course of Action specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

Qesem Cave - Middle and Lower Paleolithic Site in Israel

Qesem Cave - Middle and Lower Paleolithic Site in Israel Qesem cave is a karst cave located on the lower, western slopes of the Judean Hills in Israel, 90 meters above the sea level and about 12 kilometers from the Mediterranean Sea. The caves known limits are approximately 200 square meters (~20x15 meters and ~10 meters high), although there are several partly visible passages which have yet to be excavated. Hominid occupation of the cave has been documented in a 7.5-8 meter-thick layer of sediment, divided into an Upper Sequence (~4 meters thick) and a Lower Sequence (~3.5 meters thick). Both sequences are believed to be associated with the Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Complex (AYCC), which in the Levant is transitional between the Acheulean period of the late Lower Paleolithic and the Mousterian of the early Middle Paleolithic. The stone tool assemblage at Qesem Cave is dominated by blades and shaped blades, called the Amudian industry, with a small percentage of Quina scraper-dominated Yabrudian industry. A few Acheulean hand axes were found sporadically throughout the sequence. Faunal material discovered in the cave exhibited a good state of preservation, and included fallow deer, auroch, horse, wild pig, tortoise, and red deer. Cutmarks on the bones suggest butchery and marrow extraction; the selection of bones within the cave suggest that the animals were field-butchered, with only specific parts returned to the cave where they were consumed. These, and the presence of blade technology, are early examples of modern human behaviors. Qesem Cave Chronology Qesem Caves stratigraphy has been dated by Uranium-Thorium (U-Th) series on speleothermsnatural cave deposits such as stalagmites and stalactites, and, at Qesem Cave, calcite flowstone and pool deposits. Dates from the speleotherms are from in situ samples, although not all of them are clearly associated with the human occupations. Speleotherm U/Th dates recorded within the top 4 meters of the cave deposits range between 320,000 and 245,000 years ago. A speleotherm crust at 470-480 cm below the surface returned a date of 300,000 years ago. Based on similar sites in the region, and these suite of dates, the excavators believe that occupation of the cave began as long ago as 420,000 years ago. Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Complex (AYCC) sites such as Tabun Cave, Jamal Cave and Zuttiyeh in Israel and Yabrud I and Hummal Cave in Syria also contain date ranges between 420,000-225,000 years ago, fitting with the data from Qesem. Sometime between 220,000 and 194,000 years ago, Qesem cave was abandoned. Note (Jan 2011): Ran Barkai, director of the Qesem Cave Project at Tel Aviv University, reports that a paper to be submitted for publication soon provides dates on burnt flints and animal teeth within the archaeological sediments. Faunal Assemblage Animals represented at Qesem cave include approximately 10,000 microvertebrate remains, including reptiles (there are an abundance of chameleons), birds, and micromammals such as shrews. Human Remains at Qesem Cave Human remains found within the cave are restricted to teeth, found in three different contexts, but all within the AYCC of the late Lower Paleolithic period. A total of eight teeth were found, six permanent teeth and two deciduous teeth, probably representing at least six different individuals. All of the permanent teeth are mandibular teeth, containing some traits of Neanderthal affinities and some suggesting a similarity to hominids from Skhul/Qafzeh caves. Qesems excavators are convinced that the teeth are Anatomically Modern Human. Archaeological Excavations at Qesem Cave Qesem Cave was discovered in 2000, during road construction, when the caves ceiling was almost entirely removed. Two brief salvage excavations were conducted by the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University and the Israel Antiquities Authority; those studies identified the 7.5 meter sequence, and the presence of AYCC. Planned field seasons were conducted between 2004 and 2009, led by Tel Aviv University. Sources See Tel Aviv Universitys Qesem Cave Project for additional information. See page two for a list of resources used in this article. Sources See Tel Aviv Universitys Qesem Cave Project for additional information. This glossary entry is a part of the About.com guide to Paleolithic, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Barkai R, Gopher A, Lauritzen SE, and Frumkin A. 2003. Uranium series dates from Qesem Cave, Israel, and the end of the Lower Palaeolithic. Nature 423(6943):977-979. doi:10.1038/nature01718 Boaretto E, Barkai R, Gopher A, Berna F, Kubik PW, and Weiner S. 2009. Specialized Flint Procurement Strategies for Hand Axes, Scrapers and Blades in the Late Lower Paleolithic: A 10Be Study at Qesem Cave, Israel. Human Evolution 24(1):1-12. Frumkin A, Karkanas P, Bar-Matthews M, Barkai R, Gopher A, Shahack-Gross R, and Vaks A. 2009. Gravitational deformations and fillings of aging caves: The example of Qesem karst system, Israel. Geomorphology 106(1-2):154-164. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.09.018 Gopher A, Ayalon A, Bar-Matthews M, Barkai R, Frumkin A, Karkanas P, and Shahack-Gross R. 2010. The chronology of the late Lower Paleolithic in the Levant based on U-Th ages of speleothems from Qesem Cave, Israel. Quaternary Geochronology 5(6):644-656. doi: 10.1016/j.quageo.2010.03.003 Gopher A, Barkai R, Shimelmitz R, Khalaily M, Lemorini C, Heshkovitz I, and Stiner MC. 2005. Qesem Cave: An Amudian Site in Central Israel. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 35:69-92. Hershkovitz I, Smith P, Sarig R, Quam R, Rodrà ­guez L, Garcà ­a R, Arsuaga JL, Barkai R, and Gopher A. 2010. Middle Pleistocene dental remains from Qesem Cave (Israel). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 144(4):575-592. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.21446 Karkanas P, Shahack-Gross R, Ayalon A, Bar-Matthews M, Barkai R, Frumkin AG, Avi , and Stiner MC. 2007. Evidence for habitual use of fire at the end of the Lower Paleolithic: Site-formation processes at Qesem Cave, Israel. Journal of Human Evolution 53(2):197-212. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.04.002 Lemorini C, Stiner MC, Gopher A, Shimelmitz R, and Barkai R. 2006. Use-wear analysis of an Amudian laminar assemblage from the Acheuleo-Yabrudian of Qesem Cave, Israel. Journal of Archaeological Science 33(7):921-934. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2005.10.019 Maul LC, Smith KT, Barkai R, Barash A, Karkanas P, Shahack-Gross R, and Gopher A. 2011. 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